ABSTRACT
Despite substantial financial investment on reforestation projects, they fail to realize their fundamental goal of biodiversity conservation, carbon emission reduction, and support to livelihoods, leading to wastage of funds. The research was focused on determining the factors influencing the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kenya, focusing on Kodera and Wire forests in Rachuonyo South Sub-County in Homa Bay County. The objectives were; to assess the influence of public participation on the sustainability of reforestation projects, to assess the influence the economic benefits on the sustainability of reforestation projects, to evaluate the influence of government policy on the sustainability of reforestation projects, and to assess the influence of community awareness on the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire forests. Consequently, the study sought to fill the knowledge gap on the factors influencing the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire Forests. The theories of participation and conservation guided the study. It adopted a descriptive design. Through stratified and simple random sampling, 92 respondents were selected from a target population of 920. The collection of quantitative data was done using closed-ended questionnaires. Validity was enhanced through piloting, while reliability was enhanced through the split-half method. The quantitative data was measured in an interval scale, coded, and fed into the SPSS for analysis. Inferential and descriptive statistics were used to analyze data. Tables were used to present the data. There was a statistically significant relationship between public participation, economic benefits, government policy, and community awareness and the sustainability of reforestation projects (P-value < 0.05 = 0.001843785, 0.009802, 0.040775, and 0.000692 at 95% confidence level respectively). The study concluded that public participation, economic benefits, government policy, and community awareness have a significant influence on the sustainability of reforestation projects. Project implementers should enhance public participation, community awareness, and provide economic benefits to local communities. Government policies on projects should focus on the community and promote equality. Further research should be done to assess the influence of politics, income levels, literacy levels, and tree species on the sustainability of reforestation projects.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Forest degradation continues to be a global problem affecting millions of lives. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2020) records that deforestation and degradation of forests have affected the lives of 1.6 billion people globally who rely on woodlands for their survival. Out of the 1.6 billion people who derive their livelihoods from forests, one billion make up the world’s poorest (IUCN, 2020). Deforestation occurs when forests are converted to non- forest uses like agriculture and road construction. Forest degradation occurs when forest ecosystems become unable to provide important services and goods to nature and people (IUCN, 2020). More than half of the forests in the tropics have been lost since the 1960s, and every second, one hector of tropical forests is degraded. Degradation is not limited to only tropical forests, in Europe; more than 3.7 million hectors of forest land have been lost through destruction by human activities, forest fires, diseases, insects, and livestock (IUCN, 2020).
Forests are essential for biodiversity protection, sustainable livelihoods, and climate mitigation and adaptation. More than 80% of the global biodiversity is found in the forests (IUCN, 2020). Forests loss threatens the survival of thousands of plant and animal species. It limits the ability of forests to provide important services like fertile soil for agriculture and clean water and air. Deforestation poses a real threat to the lives of poor people who depend on the forests for survival. For instance, 52% of all agricultural land is severely destroyed through soil erosion, which occurs when trees are cleared. This causes food insecurity. Globally, forests take in over
2.4 billion tons of carbon dioxide that originates from the combustion of fossil fuels (IUCN, 2020). Destruction of forests further releases substantial amounts of carbon into the atmosphere, further compounding the problem of climate change. Protecting and restoring forests, which are important carbon sinks, can help in mitigating climate change. They also play a vital role in enhancing programs designed to combat climate. They are food safety nets in the event of climate shocks, minimize risks associated with disasters like the flooding of coastal areas, and help regulate water flows and microclimates. Enhancing the health of forest ecosystems and
introducing sustainable reforestation projects enhances humans and natural systems ability to withstand climate change (IUCN, 2020).
Reforestation projects like Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) by the IUCN and the United Nations’ Billion Trees Campaign can help nations mitigate the effects of degradation and deforestation and resuscitate the economic, ecological, climatic, and social, significance of forests. Yet, the sustainability of these reforestation projects continues to be the greatest challenge to many nations (Cao et al., 2010). For instance, the government of China invested billions of dollars in several reforestation projects like the Grain for Green and the Three North Shelter projects to solve forest degradation. Despite the massive financial investment, these projects have proved to be ecologically unsustainable. Most of the trees planted either died or are dying now (Cao et al., 2010). In their research, Cao et al. (2010) concluded that poor government policies on reforestation could have been the major cause of the unsustainability of the reforestation projects in China.
China holds about 5% of the global forest cover; hence challenges of sustainability of its reforestation projects have a significant global impact. According to De Li et al. (2013), China has invested $47.82 in its reforestation programs since 1999, yet these projects remain unsustainable. The Sloping Land Conversion Project is one example of those projects, and it is also the largest reforestation project globally. Assessment of the project by De Li et al. (2013) in Hainan Island in China showed that its implementation produced adverse effects on natural forests in the area. The study established that pulpwood and rubber plantations had replaced natural forests. Grasslands, shrubs, and natural forests decreased by 65%, with natural forests losing the most significant land at 21,063 hectares. The project converted a more substantial part of the natural forest into rubber and pulpwood plantations. The authors concluded that replacing natural forests could lead to higher carbon emissions (De Li et al., 2013)
Deforestation rate in Africa is twice that of the global average, with more than 4 million hectares of forest lost annually. For instance, reports indicate that Ghana had lost 23% of its 715,500 hectares of the original forest land through human actions like illegal logging. Deforestation contributes around 6-17% of the total carbon dioxide emission through anthropogenic sources (Appiah, Fagg & Pappinen, 2015). In 1992, the Convention for Biological Diversity (CBD) and
the United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC) were signed. This led to the development of Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Degradation Plus (REDD+) projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions through reforestation initiatives. However, major donors like the African Development Bank and World Bank continue to doubt the sustainability of such projects, which are normally implemented on huge costs. Implementation of these projects, mostly in Africa, usually starts well, but sustaining them becomes difficult.
Consequently, many reforestation projects in Africa fail to realize their fundamental goal of biodiversity conservation, carbon emission reduction, and enhanced forest governance (Appiah, Fagg & Pappinen, 2015). This implies that while implementers of reforestation projects incur a significant amount of money, lack of sustainability hinders them from benefiting from these projects’ returns. Lack of sustainability of these projects is attributed to insufficient legal frameworks for shared equitable benefits and joint-management, resulting in social conflicts, inadequate participatory approaches, and failure of access rights of the local communities (Appiah, Fagg & Pappinen, 2015). In Kenya, reforestation projects like the Mau Forest reforestation project initiated by retired President Kibaki and former Minister Raila Odinga, who was the former prime minister, underwent serious community resistance problems. This affected the sustainability of the project even after millions of shillings had been pumped into the project. Reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire Forests also face similar problems of lack of sustainability due to factors such as community resistance and illegal logging. Therefore, there is an urgent need to investigate the varied factors that influence the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire Forests.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Even with the substantial financial investment on reforestation projects, their sustainability continues to be a major problem. The sustainability of these projects is vital to ensure that forests remain viable. Forests have a vital role in mitigating climate change, watershed protection, soil erosion prevention, and air quality regulation. Forests also help in biodiversity conservation, providing home to many animal and plant species. They also provide essential resources such as wood and food, thus supporting millions of livelihoods. According to the World Wide Fund for
Nature (2020), more than two billion individuals derive fuel security, water, food, shelter, and livelihoods from forests. Forests support the largest percentage (80%) of the earth’s terrestrial biodiversity (WWF, 2020). Lack of sustainability of reforestation projects directly contributes to declining forests cover as trees are not constantly replaced following high rates of forest degradation. According (FAO) (2020), between 2015 and 2020, it is estimated that deforestation rate will hit 10 million hectors annually. Besides affecting vulnerable communities that directly depend on forests for their survival, deforestation can pose a significant effect on the global population through increased risks of climate change and loss of biodiversity. A report by FAO (2020), indicates that fallout from post-election violence in 2007/8, poorly planned settlements, and illegal logging have led to the deterioration of forest resources in Kenya, thus, threatening water supplies, tourism, food security, and livelihoods. This has further hindered the country’s effort to meet the recommended global minimum of 10% forest cover. Forest cover in Kenya currently stands at 7.4%. The rate of depletion of forests in Kenya is alarming, with about 5,000 hectares lost annually. This is estimated to cause a loss of 62 million cubic meters of water, leading to a loss of more than $19 million (Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 2018). Mau forest, the country’s largest indigenous forest and water tower, has lost a quarter of its area in the last 20 years (UNEP, 2020). From these statistics, it is evident that the rate of deforestation globally and in Kenya is a major problem. Reforestation projects can reverse this trend and help Kenya to meet the 10% forest cover only if they remain sustainable. Besides the ecological problems, lack of sustainability of the reforestation projects also causes financial wastage as huge amounts of money are invested in these projects. The study will produce valuable parameters that can be used to ensure the sustainability of reforestation projects. The parameters will be major reference points to facilitate the sustainability of reforestation projects.
Purpose of the Study
The study assessed the factors that influence the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire Forests in Rachuonyo South Sub-County in Homa Bay County.
Objectives of the Study.
The following objectives guided the study:
- To assess the influence of public participation on the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire forests.
- To assess the influence economic benefits on the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire forests.
- To evaluate the influence of government policies on the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire Forests.
- To assess the influence of community awareness on the sustainability of reforestation projects in Kodera and Wire forests.
