TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i
Acknowledgement ii
Dedication iii
Table of Content iv
Abstract v
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 8
Purpose of Study 9
Operational Definition of Terms 9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW 11
Theoretical Review 11
Theories of Depression 11
Theories of Self-Esteem 15
Gender Theories 17
Empirical Review 20
Self-Esteem and Depression 20
Gender and Depression 27
Summary of the Reviewed Theories 31
Summary of the Empirical Review 33
Hypotheses 36
CHAPTER THREE
METHOD 37
Participants 37
Instruments 37
.Procedure 41
Design/Statistics 41
CHAPTER
FOUR
RESULT 43
CHAPTER
FIVE
Discussion
46
ABSTRACT
The
study investigated the role of self-esteem and gender in self-report of
depressive symptoms among adolescents in a sample of two hundred and sixty one
(261) Secondary School Students in Enugu State Capital of Enugu State of
Nigeria comprising adolescents from various socio-economic backgrounds. It
hypothesized that self-esteem and gender would not play any significant role in
the participant’s self- report of depressive symptoms. ANOVA statistics was
used to analyze the data. The result showed that self-esteem played a
significant role in self-report of depressive symptoms (F = 384.88, df = 1, p
<. 05), with participants who have high self-esteem reporting low depression
than those with low self-esteem. On the other hand, male and female students
did not differ in their report on depression.
Discussion
highlighted the importance of intervention in limiting or eliminating
depression thereby leading to enhanced mental health.
Keywords: self-esteem, gender,
depression, secondary school students
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Depression is a common mental illness
that affects a lot of people all over
the world. It is a universal experience
and it is said to be the common cold of psychopathology in Europe and America
(Oladimeji 1995). In Africa as well,
depression has been found, in its various forms, to be high on the list of
common problems in psychiatric clinics and hospitals (Gentian 1968; Ebie,
1972).
Depression can be viewed in three
separate ways as a biological disease, as a reaction to life situations, and as
a means of interpersonal communication. Expounding depression as a reaction to
life situations, Nolen-Hoeksema (2004) defined depression as a state marked by
either a sad mood or a loss of interest in one’s usual activities, as well as
feelings of hopelessness, suicidal ideation, psychomotor agitation or
retardation and trouble concentrating.
Investigators recently have begun to
develop models that attempt to integrate cognitive and interpersonal processes
in understanding vulnerability to depression. With respect to cognitive
dysfunctions, depression is marked by a variety of negative thought patterns,
including dysfunctional attitudes (Barnett & Gotlib, 1992). Importantly,
such negative thinking is associated with relapse of depression (Simons,
Murphy, Levine, & Wetzel, 1986) and its absence predicts recovery from the
disorder (Brown, Bifulco, & Andrew, 1990.) With respect to interpersonal
difficulties, depression has been linked to interpersonal rejection (Gotlib
& Robinson, 1982), inadequate social support in times of crisis (Brown,
Bifulco, Harris & Bridge, 1986) and marital conflict (Beach, Sandeen, &
O’Leary, 1990). Furthermore, relapse in depression is associated with family
criticism (Hooley, Orley & Teasdale, 1986), whereas speed and likelihood of
recovery is predicted by low levels of family conflict, and positive overall
family functioning (Corney, 1987).
In recent years, a variety of new and
innovative models of depression have been proposed (Beck, 1972). The author
analyzed depression from a social learning or behavioural point of view. The
various symptoms of clinical depression are seen as maladaptive behaviours, to
a considerable degree acquired through learning principles. Emphasis is on the
roles of environmental antecedents and consequences of depressed behaviour and
faulty patterns maintenance of depression.
Symptom, according to Harriman (1977) is
any observed characteristic or change indicating the presence or onset of a
pathological condition. The symptoms of depression, within the behavioural
framework, are classified by their mode of expression into the physiological,
overt-motor and verbal-cognitive categories (Lang, 1968 as cited in Oladimeji,
1995), According to American Psychiatric Association (2000), depression
includes a variety of emotional, physiological, behavioural, and cognitive
symptoms. Emotional Symptoms include; sadness, depressed mood, loss of interest
or pleasure in usual activities, irritability (particularly in children and
adolescents).
Physiological and Behavioural Symptoms
include: sleep disturbance (hypersomnia or insomnia), appetite disturbances,
psychomotor retardation or agitation, catatonia (Unusual behaviours ranging
from complete lack of movement to excited agitation), fatigue and loss of
energy. Cognitive Symptoms include: poor concentration and attention,
indecisiveness, sense of worlhlessness or guilt, poor self-esteem,
hopelessness, suicidal thoughts, delusion and hallucinations with depressive
themes.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual four (DSM-IV) of the
American
Psychiatric Association (2003) categorized major depressive episodes and stated that five (or more) of the nine symptoms —— depressed mood; marked diminished interest or pleasure in all or almost all activities most of the day; significant weight loss when not dieting, or weight gain; insomnia or hyposomnia nearly every day; psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly everyday; fatigue or loss of energy nearly everyday; feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt; diminished ability to think or concentrate or indecisiveness, nearly everyday; and recurrent thought of death or recurrent suicidal ideation —- should be present during the same 2 – week period and represent a change from previous
functioning. (APA, 2003).
Self- esteem, according to Edelman and Remond (2005), is the way one looks at oneself: If one has good self – esteem, it means that one likes oneself and has positive feeling as everyone
else. If one has poor self- esteem, it means that one does not have positive
feeling about him / herself or that he / she is inferior to others (Edelman
& Remond, 2005),
Self – esteem is a term used in
psychology to reflect a person’s overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her
own worth. Self – esteem encompasses belief (e.g., “I am competent”
or “I am incompetent”) and emotions, such as’ triumph, despair, pride
and shame, Self – esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension
(e.g., “I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in
particular”) or have global extent (e.g., “I believe I am a good
person and feel proud of myself in general.”) People who have poor
self-esteem tend to focus on and magnify their perceived shortcomings, and
ignore their strengths and achievements.
Psychologists usually regard self-esteem
as enduring personality characteristics (“trait” self-esteem), though
normal, short term variations (“state” self- esteem) also exist
(lleasoner, 2010).
Edelman and Remond (2005) suggest how
self-esteem affects ones life. According to them, self – esteem can affect how
one feels, how one relates to other people, how one deals with challenges and
how relaxed and safe one feels in one’s daily life. In order to be happy, a
person needs to like himself. If one believes that he has no positive feeling,
or if he is constantly putting himself down, he is more likely to feel
depressed, anxious, or miserable than someone who has a positive view of
himself.
ROLE OF SELF-ESTEEM AND GENDER IN SELF-REPORT DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS AMONG ADOLESCENTS
