ABSTRACT

Reducing irregular migration is a policy priority of most states in North Africa. In the last decade, North African countries have implemented a range of practical measures to prevent and reduce irregular migration to, through and from the region to Europe. With various states taking different approaches to irregular migration dependent on their overall policies and peculiar experiences of irregular migration, this study aims to understand the policy interventions that the Egyptian and Moroccan governments have implemented in curbing irregular migration flows into and from their countries. By studying the individual national policies and regional and bilateral agreements on migration regulation, the study sought to examine the similar and varied approaches by Egypt and Morocco in curbing irregular migration from their respective countries into Europe The comparative analysis is supported by content analysis of existing literature on migration policies and empirical data from interviews. Based on the comparative analysis, the study reveals that Egypt‟s and Morocco‟s geographical position between Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe have made migratory flows in North Africa more complex in nature. It is found that though governments of Egypt and Morocco have all stepped up their efforts in managing irregular migration, Morocco seems to be in the lead, even though the country still faces irregular arrivals and exits. In the context of the study results, it is recommended that an integrated approach with broader stakeholder collaborations is needed to effectively tackle the issue of irregular migration. A shift away from ad hoc security-based approach to a more humanitarian policy framework is recommended to enable the two North African States benefit from migration and effectively deal with the challenges of irregular migration.

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

            Background to the Research

The world today is witnessing an upward spiral in the spatial mobility of people as globalisation and developments in transport and technology has led to spaces of flows.¹ International migration has become a global phenomenon with both developed and developing countries facing various challenges and opportunities associated with this development.² Associated with this increasing global migration flows is the unprecedented proportionate increase in irregular migration activities.

Though the actual numbers of irregular migrants is difficult to obtain globally, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) report that about ten to fifteen per cent of migrants are found in an irregular situation worldwide.³ According to Wohlfeld (2014), “the size of irregular migration cannot in itself really constitute the problematic part, rather, it is the trend of growing numbers of migrants and irregular migrants, and the lack of clarity and control on who enters developed countries and stays in them and for what purpose, associated with irregular migration, that causes real or imagined threat perceptions”.⁴

With the changing international migration patterns, government views and policy priorities have also evolved over time in addressing the growing magnitude, scope, complexity and impact of international migration.⁵ Indeed, states have the sovereign right in protecting their borders; hence, anything that poses a threat to this security/protection will, invariably, undermine the credibility of their sovereignty.

In the last two decades, the European Union (EU), especially its southern borders, has faced the threat of irregular migration. The majority of this irregular entry into Europe has been through North African countries, particularly through the Maghreb, Egypt and Libya.⁶ Migrants coming from the Middle East, sub-Saharan Africa and Asia have used routes in North Africa as a major transiting point across the Mediterranean into Europe. This has contributed to the emergence of smuggling markets that are facilitating the movements of these irregular migrants into Europe.

The surge in irregular migration to and from North African countries into Europe has necessitated a growing number of responses. This includes increasingly restrictive migration policies from both the transiting and receiving states in addressing irregular migration by reforming immigration laws, return of unauthorised migrants, the externalisation of European immigration policies and the implementation of border apprehensions and regularisation programmes, especially from the EU-members states, in a bid to stem the flows.⁷

            Statement of the Problem

Irregular migration has been a long-standing concern for states mostly affected by this phenomenon.⁸ The fight against irregular migration is a policy priority for many states and non- state actors. Hence, many countries affected by the phenomenon have implemented a number of strategies and policies and programs to stem the flows of irregular migrants.⁹

In response to the increasing migration trends, both research and policy practices have shown how the bulk of policy strategies has focused on the European states with a few recent exception on African sending states.¹⁰ For Coyller et al, the policies of migrants sending states in Africa, in general, have been largely ignored in the discussion of migration policies. Although the

European impact on African migration governance cannot be overlooked, African experiences in migration governance is worthy of research attention.¹¹ In order to reduce the Western/Euro centric biases in migration scholarship, it is imperative to understand the migration policies of some African societies that are affected by the complex social, political and economic migratory transformation. Egypt and Morocco are a particular case in point with both countries experiencing an increase in migration that has triggered various policy responses by both states. The relative lack of research in these contexts and the subsequent intention to fill this gap in the literature inform my choice to comparatively analyse the migration policies of Egypt and Morocco.

The characteristics of the two North African states make a comparative case study analysis of their individual migration policies an interesting inquiry to pursue. First, Egypt and Morocco are portraits of transit, origin and destination states because of their geographical location.¹² Most importantly for this study, both countries are part of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region where migration patterns differ greatly across countries and time.¹³ A remarkable variation in official estimates of irregular migration flows is also identified, although both countries lie on prominent migration routes into Europe and are jointly considered as the region‟s major emigration countries.¹⁴

Given these contextual conditions, the current study explores the policy models, implementations and their impact in terms of deterring irregular migration in Egypt and Morocco. Based on available statistical evidence, Egypt and Morocco present a typical case of cross country differences in policy implementations.¹⁵ This notable difference justifies the comparative research on the two North African states in order to examine potential policy divergences, indications of any policy convergences, implementation approaches and operational challenges

that have helped Morocco, for instance, in regulating irregular migration stocks out of its precinct as compared to Egypt in recent years.

            Research Questions

The research is based on the following questions:

1. What are the trends of irregular migration to and from North Africa to Europe?
2. What are the similarities and differences in the immigration policies of Egypt and Morocco?
3. What accounts for the different strategies adopted by Egypt and Morocco to curbing irregular migration into Europe?
4. What are the effects of the two approaches by Egypt and Morocco in curbing irregular migration?