CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTORY ISSUES
Background of the Study
The role of women in contemporary African Christian setting is an on-going discus- sion. Novieto asserts that until the rise of the African Independent churches, women’s roles were limited to singing, ushering, taking care of churches and minimal general services in the church.1 The situation was even worse in the area of theological reflec- tion. In the early parts of 1970s, in fact, only one female voice was heard speaking through journals and other African theological bodies: the voice of Prof. Mercy Amba Ewudziwaa Oduyoye. It was only after the creation of the ‘Circle of Concerned Afri- can Women Theologians’ in 1989 that more women have been encouraged to be in- volved in theological debates and publications.2
Focusing on the Ghanaian landscape, from 1977 some mainline churches — such as the Methodist Church, the Presbyterian Church, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church and the Anglican Church — began ordaining women into the clergy. In recent times, the Pentecostal, Charismatic and neo-Prophetic churches are the leading denomina- tions encouraging more women into leadership roles in their churches. Some of the roles they fill are heads of the deacon bodies, prophetesses, clergy and founding members.3
Soothill discusses the influence of Ghanaian women leaders in the Charismatic churches and their impact towards church growth and women empowerment. She
1 Ernestina Enyonam Novieto, “Women Leaders in Ghanaian Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches” (PhD Thesis, University of Ghana, 2013), 75-87.
2 Mercy Amba Ewudziwaa Oduyoye, Interview granted the researcher, May 24, 2018.
3 Novieto, “Women Leaders,” 75-87.
identifies Christie Doe Tetteh and Francisca Duncan-Williams as women leaders in the area of church growth and women empowerment.4
Notwithstanding, the history of the Church in Ghana can attest to the significance of women leaders towards church planting and growth. A few are outlined as follows: The Church of the Twelve Apostles was founded by a woman, Grace Tani. Through her, many joined the Christian faith, others found solutions to their spiritual and phys- ical problems and others were able to identify and operate in their spiritual gifts. Prophetess Hannah Barnes, who, although not the founder of the Musama Disco Christo Church, held a leadership role as a prophetess and through her area of opera- tion, drew many to the Christian faith as most of her prophecies and visions came to pass.5
Within the Catholic Church, although women are not ordained into the priesthood, they fill other important positions within the dioceses and the church as a whole. They are members of Pontifical Congregations and Commissions such as the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples,6 and the Pontifical Biblical Commission;7 also they are Diocesan chancellors and judges. They teach in seminaries, and they are responsi- ble for the pastoral care of parishes where they visit the sick, lead prayers, distribute Holy Communion, preach and even officiate the sacrament of marriage.8
4 Jane E. Soothill, “The Problem with ‘Women’s Empowerment’: Female Religiosity in Ghana’s Char- ismatic Churches,” Studies in World Christianity 16, no. 1 (2010): 82-99.
5 Brigid Sackey, “Aspects of Continuity in the Religious Roles of Women in ‘Spiritual Churches’ of Ghana,” Research Review 5, no. 2 (1989): 20-28.
6 Osservatore Romano, “Sr. Luzia Premoli, the first woman to be appointed a member of Congregation,” accessed August 15, 2017.
7 “Pontificia Commissione Biblica,” accessed August 15, 2017.
8 In the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is considered a sacrament and in recent times there have been the inclusion of few women to join in the officiating of such sacrament. For example, “On the 20th of July 2017, the Vatican Congregation for Divine Worship and the Sacraments granted a Canadian, nun Sr. Pierrette Thiffault, the permission to officiate at a July 22, 2017 wedding in Lorrianville-
Pope John Paul II in his encyclical letter on the Dignity of Women, commended Saint Theresa of Jesus, and Saint Catherine of Siena as ‘Doctors of the church’, which was conferred upon them by Paul VI on September 27, 1970 and October 4, 1970 respec- tively. He recognizes women at the centre of God’s salvific event by making refer- ence to Gen 3:15 and the event of Mary as the mother of Jesus. He explains how women dignity was lowered by sin and redeemed by Jesus through his advocacy for women and his revolutionary attitude towards them. Pope John Paul II identifies Je- sus’ reference to women as ‘daughters of Abraham’ (Luke 13:16) and ‘daughters of Jerusalem’ (Luke 23:28) as a way of confirming their dignity. Thus “Jesus of Naza- reth confirmed their dignity, recalled it, renewed it, and made it a part of the Gospel and of the Redemption for which he is sent into the world.”9
Pope Francis in his Apostolic Exhortation, Evangelii Gaudium, commends women for the significant role they play in the church and in theological discussions:
The Church acknowledges the indispensable contribution which women make to society through the sensitivity, intuition and other distinctive skill sets which they, more than men, tend to possess. I think, for example, of the spe- cial concern which women show to others, which finds a particular, even if not exclusive, expression in motherhood. I readily acknowledge that many women share pastoral responsibilities with priests, helping to guide people, families and groups and offering new contributions to theological reflection. But we need to create still broader opportunities for a more incisive female presence in the Church. Because the feminine genius is needed in all expressions in the life of society, the presence of women must also be guaranteed in the work-
Canada; a community in diocese of Rouyn-Noranda in Northwest Quebec. According to the chancellor of the Rouyn-Noranda, Sister of Charity Madeleine Dumas, the 1983 Code of Canon Law, can. 1112 makes it possible for appointed lay people to officiate at Catholic weddings in the absence of Priests and Deacons. See, Lianne Laurence, “Vatican gives nun permission to officiate wedding,” accessed August 15, 2017,
9 Pope John Paul, Mulieris Dignitatem. Encyclical Letter on the Dignity and Vocation of Women on the Occasion of the Marian Year (Rome: Vatican Press, 1988), accessed on August 28, 2017
place and in the various other settings where important decisions are made, both in the Church and in social structures.10
In Africa, Christian women are becoming more and more aware of their dignity, and for such awareness, women movements have been formed to impact not only in the pastoral life of the church, but also in theological reflection. An example is the ‘Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians’ which has a woman as founder, Professor Mercy Amba Ewudziwaa Oduyoye, the first recognized African woman theologian. She is referred to as the ‘mother of African Women Theologies.’11
With the rise of women’s involvement in various roles within the Christian landscape, a number of researches have been conducted concerning the extent to which women can be involved in the various roles within the church. Biblical scholarship offers dif- ferent interpretation of the New Testament vision of women and church leadership. To scholars such as Aihiokhai12 and Kasomo13 the problem of the inclusion of women in church leadership results from the first century Jewish and Hellenistic cultures that excluded women from holding leadership roles, affecting also the position of women in the apostolic community. Miller, on the other hand, blames the bible for not explic- itly stating whether or not women are to involve themselves in church leadership, be-
11 Yolanda Smith “Mercy Amba Oduyoye,” accessed on August 28, 2017,educators/protestant/mercy_oduyoye.
12 The role of women should not be limited to what society prescribes. Women must be seen as equal to men because both are children of the Lord once baptized in Christ. Women are part of the royal priest- hood of Christ.; See Simon Mary Aihiokhai, “New Perspective of the Role of Women as Ritualitic Agents in the Roman Catholic Church: A Comparative Theological Dialogue with Bede Benjamin Bid- lack and Tracy Sayuki Tiemier,” Phd diss. University of Portland, 19-22, accessed on 25th June, 2017,
13 The low class of women as a result of culture contributes to the kind of role women play in the church. See, Daniel Kasomo, “The Role of Women in the Church in Africa,” International Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 2, no. 6 (2010): 126-139.
cause within the same patriarchal culture, some women were greeted as deaconesses (Rom 16:1) and other women were told to be silent in the church (I Tim 2:11-12).14
Denominations are also not united on the biblical bases for women’s involvement in church leadership. For example, whereas the Apostolic Church of Ghana believes that it is unbiblical for women to hold leadership roles, most Charismatic churches in Ghana consider equity between men and women as a ‘biblical mandate’, and conse- quently ordain women as pastors and bishops.
Waltke argues that both men and women as equally created in the image of God (Gen 1:27), hence are equal in being, dignity, gifts and ministry. He argues that the same Spirit that calls and gives gifts to men, calls and gives gifts to women. He therefore, considers the bible as ‘the number one’ supporter of women’s involvement in church leadership. To him, just as wives are to submit to husbands, so should all submit to authority, irrespective of the gender of the authority.15 Miller, however, disagrees with such assertion by arguing that first century women did not fill roles of preachers, apostles and elders.16
The debate on whether or not women are to hold leadership roles in the church is not a new phenomenon as the New Testament writings testify. In Romans 16, Paul men- tions 12 women (11 by name and mother of Rufus), attributing them the title of ‘Dea- coness’ (16: 1); ‘Companion’ (16: 3); ‘Apostle’ (16: 7); some are responsible of home churches; others “have given good proof in Christ” (16:10); many “have laboured in
14 J. David Miller, “Asking the Wrong Questions,” Priscilla Papers 24, no. 3 (Summer 2010): 4-7. 15 Bruce K. Waltke, “The Role of Women in the Bible,” CRUX xxxi, no. 3 (September 1995), 29-39. 16 Miller, “Asking the Wrong Questions,” 4-7.
the Lord” (16: 11.12). Paul regards them as sisters (16: 1); ‘Mothers’ (16: 13); ‘Protec- tors’ (162); people who ‘risk everything for the Gospel’ (16: 4).17
Unfortunately, when the church began the process of organizing and institutionaliz- ing, the innovative force of the origins was attenuated in accordance with a patriarchal cultural context. The women were made invisible and silent (1 Tm 2.11-12); being a woman became synonymous with vainness and gossip (1 Tm 5: 13-15), weakness and sin (1Tm 2:13-15; Acts 2:20)18. For centuries, the biblical writings were interpreted in a male-perspective and sometimes, manipulated to subdue and dominate women.19
But “from the beginning it was not so…” (Matt 19:8). In the beginning, God created men and women equally in His image and likeness (Gen 1:27). In the fullness of time a woman (Mary) became the first bearer, home and voice of the Word (Luke 1:26- 38); women followed Jesus as disciples (Luke 8:1-3) and were sent by the Risen Lord as testimonies of his resurrection. They did not only dialogue with Jesus but chal- lenged Him (John 2:1-11; Mark 7:28).20
Considering Jesus’ ministry as the starting event of Christianity, it is appropriate to ask: “What did Jesus say about women?” If there is no explicit answer in his teach- ings, it can be inferred from his behaviour. Jesus related with women and taught them (Luke 10:39; John 4:9-26), healed women (Mk 1:39), never rebuked them but often praised them for their faith (Mark 5:34; 7, 29). Furthermore, the Gospels present dif- ferent roles played by women such as prophetess (Luke 2:36), friends of Jesus (Luke
17 Nicoletta Gatti, “Va’ dai miei Fratelli e di’ Loro (Gv 20, 17),” Presbytery 8 (2015): 651-672.
18 To expand the debate, Durham identifies I Timothy 14:33 and Titus 2:3-5 as other scriptures that prohibits women from leadership and identifies Acts 2:17; 8:26; 21:9 and Philippians 4:3 as biblical texts that supports women leadership. See, Lori Durhum, “The Debate over Female Leadership in Min- istry,” (October 2016): 1-19, accessed June 25, 2017.
19 Gatti, “Va’ dai miei Fratelli,” 654.
20 Ibid., 660.
11:38), financial supporters (Matt. 27:55-56); disciples (Luke 8:1-3) and testimonies of his resurrection (John 20: 17-18).
Among the evangelists, a special approach to the role of women is taken by John. In the Fourth Gospel, in fact, women are introduced in key moments of the narrative and through women’s words and actions, John guides his readers toward a deeper under- standing of Jesus’ identity. For example, Mary the mother of Jesus was present and instrumental to Jesus’ first ‘sign’ (John 2:1-11), a woman was key to the opening of missionary work in Samaria (John 4:4-42), Mary Magdalene was the first to see the ‘risen’ Lord, and to carry the message of the resurrection to the disciples (John 20:11- 18). As noted by Beirne, the Fourth Gospel provides a positive representation of women. They are presented in equal standing with men: “They are consistently por- trayed in literary partnership as disciples in ministerial and apostolic leadership, and as catalyst for driving the Gospel’s central purpose.”21 In the Gospel of John, there is no difference between men and women in the community of disciples. Both play simi- lar roles, such as evangelization and leadership.
