ABSTRACT
This study investigated the effect of the Functional-Notional Approach (FNA) on students’ Achievement in English Grammar in Owerri North Local Government Area of Imo State. Five research questions and five null hypotheses guided the study. The study adopted a non-equivalent control group quasi-experimental design involving the treatment and control groups. The sample of this study consisted of 162 Junior Secondary School Two (JSS 2) students drawn from three secondary schools out of a population of nineteen (19) government owned secondary schools in Owerri North Local Government Area of Imo State. The multi-stage sampling technique was used to draw the respondents. Intact classes were used in each school for the experiments, so there was no random assignment of the subjects to the treatment and control groups. The instrument used for data collection was an achievement test on English Grammar which consisted of 20 multiple choice items. The lesson plan used for the experimental group was developed using the Indigenous Communicative Lesson Model, while the lesson plan for the control group was developed using the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) which is the conventional-method. The instrument for data collection and the lesson plans were face-validated by experts to ascertain the clarity and content coverage of the lesson objectives. A reliability index of the instrument was calculated using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Co-efficient which yielded a value of 0.84. The internal consistency of the test items was obtained using the Split-Half method by Spearman-Brown, which yielded a value of 0.95. The method of data analysis adopted in the study was the mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions, while Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was employed to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The results showed that the students who were exposed to teaching English Grammar using the FNA gained higher mean scores in the achievement test than their counterparts taught using the conventional method-GTM. The study revealed no significant mean difference in the achievement of male and female students taught English Grammar using the FNA. There was a significant mean difference in the achievement of urban and rural students taught English Grammar using the FNA. Finally, the study showed no significant interaction effect of treatment and gender as well as no significant interaction effect of treatment and school location in the achievement of students taught English Grammar. Some educational implications were raised which included the fact that teaching English Grammar with the FNA enhances functional use of grammatical expressions and communicative competence among the learners. English Language teachers should also create learning environment as natural as what the child finds while learning the first language. This will make the language learning process more effective and speedy. Recommendations were made in the study for the students, the English Language teachers, authors, curriculum planners and authorities in teacher training institutions for the improvement of teaching English Grammar in secondary schools.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Language is the expression
of ideas by means of speech sounds combined into words. Words are combined into
sentences, and this combination forms ideas into thoughts. Language is also
described as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group
co-operates. Brown (2001) defines language as an interaction, and interpersonal
activity which has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language
study has to look at the use (function) of language in context; both its
linguistic context (what is uttered before a given piece of discourse) and its
social, or situational context (who is speaking, what their social roles are,
why they have to come together to speak).
Language is so vital in
human existence that there is nothing human beings can do without the function
of one form of language or the other. Block & Trager (2010) opine that every
physiologically and mentally normal person acquires in childhood, the ability
to make use, as both speaker and hearer, of a system of vocal communication
that comprises a circumscribed set of noises resulting from movements of
certain organs within his throat and mouth. By means of these, he is able to
impart information, to express feelings and emotions, to influence the
activities of others.
The
English Language occupies a unique place in education in Nigeria because
of its significant role and status in national life. This observation is made
by Baldeh (2011). Supporting the view, Ezeude
(2007,p. 211) posits ‘’ It is heartening to recall the
enviable position that Nigeria
in her National Policy on Education (2004 Edition) accords to language
teaching”. According to him, languages are grouped under ‘A’ as core subjects
made compulsory at both junior and senior secondary levels. To demonstrate this
further, English is made the medium of instruction in the country from the
upper primary level to tertiary level of instruction. Furthermore, he observes
that English is the language of science and technology; it is the passport to
educational advancement and prestigious employment; it is the language of
commerce, trade and administration, and a means of national and international
communication.
It is against this
background that the need for the educational system in the country to keep
abreast of the times in lanaguge teaching has been emphasized by Ezeude (2007).
In the same vein, Baldeh (2011) further notes that an educational failure is
primarily a linguistic failure, so a good educational system requires that the
products of the system communicate their thoughts, ideas, emotions, and
attitudes unambiguously and coherently.
Consequently, the
essential use of language as the mot remarkable tool for man is stated by Uzoegwu
(2005). According to her, man’s invention of language has been used for various
purposes such as communication, social interaction, learning, storing information,
maintenance and transfer of culture. Therefore it is a means of social control
and an instrument that enables man to communicate his thoughts. The English
Language, according to Uzoegwu, empowers learners to live a fulfilled life,
especially in Nigeria.To buttress its pride of place in the educational system
in Nigeria, Olajire (2004) observes that a good pass (credit and above) has
become mandatory for transition from primary to Junior Secondary School (JSS),
and for admission to all levels of higher education in the country.
From the foregoing, the
researcher having been in the system and taught English as a subject for a
number of years, has observed a steady decline in students’ performance in the
subject. As a result, the researcher sees the need to make a contribution in
the area of using the Functional-Notional Approach for improving the teaching
method in order to enhance students’ performance and achievement in
communicative skills in English Grammar. The new teaching method in this study,
which is the Functional-Notional Approach (FNA), is designed to help students
acquire useful skills for the functional use of the language both for social
interaction and for creditable performance in internal and external
examinations. Essentially, the Functional-Notional Approach is an embodiment of
the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) method. The goal of the CLT is to
inculcate communicative competence into the language learner while the FNA
actually applies the real communicative approach and techniques to teach the
learner the practical use of language skills both in classroom situations and
in his social environment. The FNA engages the learner to use language
functions such as participating in a dialogue, making requests, asking for
information and the like. Consequently, communicative competence is achieved by
the learner.
However, some research and
documentary evidences in Nigeria
prove the fact that students’ performance in English Grammar has been poor over
the past decades. For instance, in a seminar organised for chief examiners of
English Language by WAEC (2010), the Chief Examiners were of the view that the
most reliable measurement of language achievement and competence is in Paper 1,
and the possible performance in the other papers (2 and 3) should be closely
related to it.
To substantiate this view, Uzoegwu (2005) identifies that the poor
performance of students in essay writing affects their achievement in English
Language because essay writing normally has the highest score in English Language
examination. Similarly, in a resumé of the Reports of the Chief Examiners
November/December (2008), the Report lamented the fact that candidates
exhibited poor knowledge of the rules of grammar which hindered good essay. The
Report
further cited the following examples of wrong grammar samples in candidates’
scripts:
a. Wrong concord: e.g.
(i) This days
(ii) The boys quickly runs
for sticks.
b. Wrong tense usage: e.g.
Since we leave school.
c. Wrong constructions
after the verbs make, allow, enable, etc. e.g.
(i) He made me to
learn a trade.
(ii) This will enable me (‘to’
omitted) process my admission.
d. Other wrong
constructions, e.g.
She married lately (late).
e. Wrong expressions: e.g.
(i) You must have to face
your studies. (either ‘must’ or ‘have to’, but not both).
(ii) If you are
illiterate, you cannot be able to succeed in business (cannot and “be able’’
only one).
The Report (May/June 2006,
p.6) identifies part of the problem as poor teaching techniques, and proffers a
possible solution thus: ‘’ In order to remedy these problems, teachers at the
senior secondary level should expose the candidates to speech, vocabulary
development, as well as lexis and structure….. If the students are not
adequately exposed to the skills of writing, they will continue to have
problems.’’
In the same vein, the
National Examination Council (NECO) syllabus for JSS 1-3 Basic Education
Certificate Examination (BECE), states clearly:
This new examination syllabus is designed
to test level of mastery of basic knowledge, skills and abilities in
communicative competence which the candidate is expected to have acquired in
the course of 9 year basic education….how well the candidate has been equipped
to communicate effectively in the context of the different kinds of everyday
situations…. (NECO 2007, p.37).
Also expressing a deep
concern over the fallen standards of English, Eyisi (2006, p. 9) states:
The problem is made explicit as one
engages in conversations with students in secondary schools and even higher institutions
of learning. The grammatical statements which they utter in sheer boldness send
shudders to one’s spine. They only possess a loose grasp of the Grammatical Structure
of English .
Eyisi observes further
that the sad situation depicts to a large extent why adequate attention should
be given to teaching and learning of English grammar in schools.
In fact, the need for
teaching of grammar in schools has been emphasised by language scholars
including Anyanwu (2007) who offers about four (4) reasons why grammar should
be taught in schools, namely:-
Languages differ and
grammar is part of every language;
Languages are formally
taught;
Grammar is a mental
discipline;
There is a heuristic
intent to guide the learner.
As a mental discipline,
Anyanwu explains that grammar helps to expand the frontiers of knowledge, to
increase our repertoire of choices among its numerous paradigms and to sharpen
our perception of the relatedness of grammar as a whole and grammar to the real
world in which we live. Since grammar causes the mind to grow and the learner
has come to feed his mind on knowledge, he must be given the best of the
knowledge of grammar through informed, sustained and adequate teaching of the
discipline.
There are two broad types
of grammar which Anyanwu (2007) posits. They are (a) prescriptive grammar and
(b) descriptive grammar. Prescriptive grammar, according to Anyanwu, emerged as
a result of rules and prescription which dominated the English Language
reforms. Under that arrangement, every attempt was made to reduce English to
rules which users were expected to memorize and use. Anyanwu (2007) regards prescriptivists as
mentalists, traditionalists, diachronic grammarians, and so on. However, they
have to their credit the elaborate structured discipline which language
learning enjoys today.
On the other hand,
descriptive grammar aims at identifying the language functions before the
description. A language has structures which must be identified from the
morphemic layer to the clause and sentence layer. Descriptive grammarians, like
their prescriptive counterparts have also been regarded as functionalists,
behaviourists, synchronic grammarians, and so on. Anyanwu (2007) therefore recommends
the descriptive grammar because of its communicative and functional tendencies.
However, he advises that the prescriptiveness be applied when all description
has been said and done. The role of the teacher in this regard is crucial and
decisive. He is the captain and the model. He must be competent and
knowledgeable. Incompetent teachers do not only induce errors, they reinforce
them.
In language learning, it has come to be appreciated that mastery
of grammar can no longer be relegated to the background. Okwor (2007) observes that
grammar is an integral feature of English Language teaching and learning in
varying degrees from primary to tertiary levels of our educational system. In
the same vein, Eyisi (2006) adds that every game has a set of rules that govern
its modus operandi. To be successful,
players must not only acquaint themselves with these rules, but must also
endeavour to apply them in the course of playing. In the same vein, human
language is a rule-governed behaviour. For one to use it effectively, one must
not only be familiar with its rules but must also be able to apply them
correctly during usage. On a somewhat concluding note, Baldeh (2011)
reaffirms that it would be a great disservice to the education system if the
teaching of grammar is abandoned in the system for any reason. Thus, if the
eager Nigerian youth must forge ahead in the liberal arts, social sciences and
science and technology, and display responsible roles in the country, then they
desperately need effective communication skills.
From the foregoing, the
researcher in this study is taking a stand with the functionalists and focusing
the study on the need to produce language users who will be able to use the
English Language to perform academic functions as well as social and
interactional functions in given situations. This approach is quite opposed to
the Grammar Based method which produces only users of’ bookish’ English.
The Functional-Notional
Approach lays emphasis on communicative competence in language teaching. It
employs the application of language functions to teach the real communication
in the classroom. The teacher focuses on inculcating the social aspects of the
language in the learner, as well as the roles of the individual leaners in
language interaction. In essence,
Communicative Language Teaching is the broad view of the Functional-Notional
Approach. It applies the communicative techniques in language teaching.
Therefore, the language class is one of more student-talk, less teacher-talk.
The purposes and processes of verbal interaction are expressed through
role-play, group activity, seeking and getting information, and non-verbal
stimuli including visuals, gesture and mime. These techniques place certain
demands on the teacher for their preparation and execution. In practice, the
Functional-Notional syllabus does not invent new language to teach, rather it
selects the language which the learner is familiar with, by making use of a set
of criteria. A very important characteristics of the Functional-Notional
Approach is the fact that it takes into consideration the individual needs of
the language learner by the different types of interaction and communication
the learner may be involved in.
In this study, the
researcher has applied the methods of verbal interaction, simulation,
conversation and dialogue to expose students to the language functions of
asking for permission, making requests, expressing necessities and obligations
with the appropriate Modal Auxiliaries.The method is in line with the view
expressed by Opeibi (2004, p.387), where he observes that it is not just enough
to teach the rules of grammar which is referred to as ‘’ a bottom-up approach’’, it is as well
important to employ the pragmatic methods of looking at language as a tool for
communicative purposes. The bottom-up
approach as explained by Opeibi ( 2004 ) is an approach which focuses on the
formal language system, often in isolated sentences without showing how that
system operates in context. It divides communication into discrete levels which
can be dealt with separately. The “top- bottom approach,’’ on the other hand,
regards all the levels of a language as a whole, working together to achieve a
specific goal, such as social relationship.
The
tendency in the approach is to supplement the narrow grammatical perspective
restricted to phonology and syntax,
with an analysis and teaching of the pragmatic and communicative functions of
English in verbal interactions. For instance, in order to achieve the
objectives of the functionalist, the teacher should integrate, in the same
lesson units, mastery of language structures through drills with a freer use of
the same structures in communicative practice exercises.
The approach is described
as functional because it emphasises the point of using language for communicative
purposes more than just using language forms correctly. According to Agbedo
(2007), the context in which language is used is extremely relevant to
linguistic interaction between groups and individuals.
In the same vein, this
study is based on the stand-point of socio-linguistics that is, using language
to meet the societal needs of the learner, so that he, the learner, can
interact meaningfully in his social environment using the appropriate and
acceptable language forms. According to Williams (1999), the
Functional-Notional Approach puts the spot-light on the learner as a social
person. It views language as primarily intended for use in society. Williams records that the Functional-Notional Approach
(FNA) was the outcome of a project to prepare teaching materials for adult
‘guest-workers’ who would need to communicate in the language of their host
countries. The project was carried out by representatives of the Council of
Europe Modern Language Project. It set up a list of language functions which
could form the nucleus of a teaching syllabus. One of the major publications of
the project, Threshold Levels
English, Pergamon (1980), specifies situations in which adults may be
expected to use a foreign language with regard to roles, settings and topics
(Williams 1999,p. 60).
Furthermore, the
Functional- Notional Approach to language teaching is a material-oriented
approach which emphasises syllabus content as well as method of teaching. It is
material-oriented in the sense that the teacher deliberately selects and
prepares instructional materials to suit the lesson content. Syllabus content
is developed with reference to functions and notions in language. This approach
is very much in line with the general emphasis on communication in the
classroom, and it integrates concern for the social aspects of the language
with concern for the role of the individual in language interactions. Materials
for the syllabus consist of language functions which are identified by Williams
(1999, p. 54) as ‘’speech acts’’, and not on the traditional units of grammar.
Typical of the new trend is the title of a lesson unit such as ‘’ Asking for
Information’’. Other units may have titles such as “Asking for Direction’’,
‘’Apologising to Someone’’ Expressing an Opinion’’, Interacting Socially’’ and
so on. Williams stresses that those lesson titles represent a departure from
titles such as ‘The Present Continuous Tense’, Countable and Uncountable
Nouns’, ‘Masculine and Feminine Pronouns’ and ‘Transitive and Intransitive
Verbs’.What communicative competence aims to do is to help the learner turn his
considerable dormant grammatical competence into a real mastery of the
language, being in such everyday activities as buying stamps, going to the
supermarket, asking the way, visiting the dentist, asking the time, and the
like.
An appropriate scheme
suitable for the Functional- Notional syllabus is prescribed by Williams (1999,p.52)
as stated below:
An example of dialogue involving the formulas, structures and lexical items for expressing the roles of a customer and a bank clerk.
Customer: Excuse me
please.
Bank Clerk: Yes, can I
help you?
Customer: Certainly, I
want to find out how much money I have in my account.
Bank Clerk: What’s your
account number?
Customer: I’ve forgotten
it. Can I just write my name instead?
Bank Clerk: I suppose so.
Could you sign here please?
Customer: Alright. Thank you.
In addition, what informs
the use of modal auxiliaries as language functions in the study is that they
form the speech acts used in expressions of social interactions, making polite
requests, expressing necessities, obligations, intentions and capabilities to
others. The practice of these language functions offers users the opportunity
to learn more accurate words to use in social interactions, which is the
principal focus of the FNA. The concept of communicative competence is
described by Agbedo (2007) as the knowledge needed by a speaker or hearer to
use linguistic forms appropriately. According to him:
The goal of a student of language should be
to account for the fact that a normal child acquires knowledge of sentences not
only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He acquires competence as to when
to speak, when not, and as to what to talk about with whom, when, where, in
what manner…. It is this type of linguistic knowledge that characterises the
objectives of the functionalist approach to Language Teaching (LT). (Agbedo,
2007,p. 343).
Identifying the objectives
of communicative language teaching, Williams (1999) reports that it can be
specified with reference to the social purposes of language. The concerns would
thus be:
- appropriateness of usage ;
- conventional usage;
- transactional usage; and
- interactional usage.
The principles of the
Communicative Language Teaching have a broad view on the goals of language
teaching which include how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom
activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of the teacher and
learner in the classroom. The principles recognise communication as a social
interaction. Communication also has a purpose, in which case, communicative
activities should be geared towards some functional objective, such as asking
for direction or giving information. Broadly speaking therefore, communicative
competence is the goal of the Functional-Notional Approach. The approach
emphasises on syllabus content and organises learning materials around the specific
needs of the learner as well as specific classroom situations for specific
communicative purposes.
At
this point, the study took an overview of certain traditional approaches to
language teaching, their merits and demerits, as well as their similarities and
relationship to the Functional-Notional Approach. Specifically, the traditional
methods that were reviewed in relation to the FNA were the Grammar Translation
Method (GTM), the Direct Method and the Audio Lingual Method.
One of the earliest
methods in language teaching is the Grammar Translation Method originated by
Johann Valentine Meidinger in Prussia,
Germany
at the end of the 18th Century.
It is based on the premise that language is rule-governed. Some of the
characteristics of Grammar Translation Method include: memorisation of
vocabulary items with their native language equivalents often in isolation
(rote method), and little or no systematic practice of pronunciation as speech
is not emphasised. According to Odo (2007), a quick evaluation of the method
shows that it is useful and economical when rules are stated and explained.
Translation too can be an effective technique in second language teaching. But
the neglect of aural and oral skills (listening and speaking) as well as communicative
competence is a serious defect of the method since language is largely speech –
a means of communication. The principle underlying the Grammar Translation
Method is the fact that it emphasises the study of the form of language rather
than the communicative use of language.
The defects in the Grammar
Translation Method are based on the fact that it neglects the activities for
developing communicative competence in the language class. It also has the
tendency of selecting literary and artificial forms of language, with the
primary aim of exemplifying grammatical rules. The result is that the teacher
does much talking, denying the students the active participation that is so
vital in second language teaching. Therefore, the Functional-Notional Approach
has a number of advantages over the old Grammar Translation Method because it
emphsises on teaching language to achieve communicative competence; it sees the
learner as a social person who needs language for social interaction, so it
gives the learner room for participation in the language classroom.
Another method is the
Direct Method, which is said to have evolved as a reaction or alternative to
Grammar Translation. It ruled out translation in teaching foreign languages and
is based on the theory that language learning is a natural process. Its
objective was to make learners think in the language they are learning. So
listening and speaking the language took precedence over reading and writing.
The method does not recognise the explicit formulation and teaching of
grammatical rules, rather learners are encouraged to acquire grammatical
structures inductively by practising with complete and meaningful utterances.
The method was one of those that emphasised actual communication, so it
received overwhelming approval in the field of language teaching. However, it
was faulted by scholars like Odo (2007) for forcing learners too early to communicate
in the foreign language, resulting in inaccurate fluency and for being
unrealistic in teaching a foreign or second language because of its
unstructured procedure.. The method is mostly used at the primary and secondary
levels of education. At the tertiary level, it is used in teaching foreign
languages. The method is useful because it encourages exciting learning experience.
Learner participation is high. However, dissatisfaction with the less
structured aspects of the method has led to its modification which is the
Graded Direct Method. The modified method tries to bring in some grammatical
explanation and occasional translation. It is a kind of eclectic approach which
makes it more in keeping with the Functional-Notional Approach, and it is
useful in second language teaching and learning in the classroom.
Next is the Audio-Lingual
or Aural Oral Method. It is a method based on structural linguistics and the
theory of behavioural psychology. According to Odo (2007), structural
linguistics based on the idea that language is made up of structural units
which are used in pattern practice as in substitution, addition, combination of
structural items and transformational drills.With this method, language items
are not contextualised, but learnt through practice and repetition, mimicking
and memorisation. Some of the basic principles of the Audio-Lingual Method as
pointed out by Odo (2007) include the points that language is speech not
writing; here emphasis is laid on listening and speaking before reading and
writing. Language is a set of habits, so manipulative drills are used to teach
the language so that learners form correct habits. A major defect is that
communicative activities come after along process of rigid drills and
exercises. On the other hand, the new method, Functional-Notional Approach,
uses communicative functions like dialogues, simulation and drills to achieve
communicative competence in the learner. The new approach (FNA) essentially
sees language as a vehicle for the realisation of interpersonal relations and
for the performance of social transactions between individuals.
The teaching methods
discussed have their strengths and weaknesses and contributions to language
teaching. This study therefore is in keeping with the view that Englsh Language teachers should make use of the innovations as well as apply ecclectism
in language teaching in order to flow with the tide of times, and observe the
swing of the pendulum to the functional method for effective communication.
The study also investigated
whether the Functional-Notional Approach will be effective in determining the
gender disparity in English Language Teaching. Research efforts concerning the
issues of gender in academic achievement appear to have attracted the attention
of many educational researchers in recent times. One of the major reasons for tenacious
interest in gender issues in terms of academic achievement has been ascribed to
the possible relationship between achievement and academic opportunities. In
effect, the level of linguistic achievement of a learner, determines to a great
extent, the opportunities open to him to succeed in other areas of academic
pursuit.
The findings of research in gender differences
have long established that the measured cognitive abilities of populations of
girls and boys differ a little, if at all, in contrast within given populations
(Murphy, 2002). However, there is a whole array of processes in operation from
earliest childhood onwards whereby a particular view of masculinity and femininity
holds sway. Schools are actively involved in determining this dorminant
perspective. Despite the best efforts of schools, there are still inequalities
in the aspirations, achievements and expectations of boys and girls.
Some research findings
show that male under-achievement dominates much educational debate. Paula (2012) reports that a chart of GCSE results
from 1962 to 2006 shows that boys are
lagging behind in most subjects, except English, and girls are dominating the
examination leagues in all phases and subjects, and are more likely to go to
the university than their male
counterparts. Similarly, the issue of
under-achievement of boys in Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) has been pointed
out by Offorma (2005). Apart from
enumerating the reasons for the low achievement of boys, the book recommended
many useful language techniques for motivating boys such as target-setting, use
of ICT materials, use of interesting topics, making learning fun, and
single-sex modern language teaching which will promote the learning achievement
of boys in MFL.
In the same vein,
observations have been made on the area of language impairment. Lyons (2010) observes that
Specific Language Impairment (SLI), is one of the most robust risk factors for
many speech and language problems that have to do with a person’s sex.
Clinicians have long noted the greater numbers of males in their case loads. According
to Lyons (2010),
several studies have shown that SLI is more common in males than females. (SLI
is a developmental language disorder which has challenged speech-language
pathologists for decades and in recent years has become the subject of study).
He discovered that among the children w
