ABSTRACT
The
effect of Okara and Detarium microcarpum
seed flours on the quality of talia noddles produced from wheat and sorghum
flour composites was investigated. Composites of wheat semolina/sorghum flour
blended in ratio of 100:0, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 50:50 were prepared
and evaluated for water absorption capacity, soluble solids and swelling
capacity. Cold extruded talia produced from each flour composites dough was
evaluated for cooking time, cooking losses and total organic matter. The 100:0,
90:10, 80:20 and 70:30 wheat semolina/sorghum flour composites were selectedand blended with different levels
(0-20) % of Okara and Detarium
microcarpum flours, evaluated for physico-chemical properties and talia
produced from the flour blends were evaluated for cooking test and sensory
qualities. Four best talia products were selected, stored for six months (30 ±
2oC, 85±5% RH) and evaluated for pH, moisture content, TBA number
and mould count. Presence of sorghum in the composite flour increased the water
absorption capacity from 7.33% to 12.33%, decreased swelling capacity from
52.0% to 45.4%, while talia made from the composites showed increased cooking
loss (0.14% to 0.82%), total organic matter (1.26 to 2.84) and reduced radial expansion
(3.0 to 2.0) relative to the control. Sorghum addition at 30% level was
acceptable for talia production based on low water absorption capacity and high
swelling capacity. Okara addition increased the protein content (from 10.21% to
13.63%) of the composites and talia. Blends with 10% okara showed low water
absorption capacity (12.75%), low cooking losses (0.73%) and high scores in all
the sensory attributes except in appearance but differed significantly (p <
0.05) from the control (100% wheat). Detarium
microcarpum addition increased the crude fibre (from 1.69% to 3.76%)
content of the talia. There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference among
samples at 5% levels of Deterium
microcaprum incorporation relative
to the control in all the sensory attributes except in appearance. Low water
absorption capacity, cooking loss, and optimal total organic matter (2.01) were
observed in the samples at 5% level of Detarium
microcarpum incorporation. Okara and Detarium
microcarpum addition into talia increased the total dietary fibre contents
(from 8.61±0.02% to 9.97±0.01%). The total dietary fibre and mineral contents
of samples differed significantly (p < 0.05) with the control. Moisture
contents and TBA number did not differ (p>0.05) among stored samples but pH
and mould count differed (p < 0.05) relative to the control. Low values of
TBA (0.6 to 3.17 mg malonaldehyde/kg sample), mould count (0 to 1.4 x 102
cfu/100g) and moisture contents (10.5% to 14.5%) were recorded during storage.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCITON
1.1
Background
‘Talia’ is a
Hausa name for pasta (noodles). It consists of thin ribbons or strips of dough
locally made from durum wheat semolina and other cereals using manual cold
extrusion and drying. ‘Talia’ was probably introduced into Kano many centuries
through Trans Saharan Mediterranean trade (Anon, 2012c). The word ‘talia’ was
derived from the Italian Pasta called tagliatelle, a type of pasta from
Emilia-Romagna and Marches, region of Italy. Individual pieces of tagliatelle
are long flat ribbons that are similar in shape to fettuccine and are typically
about 0.6cm to 1cm diameter (Italian trade commission, 2009). According to
Italian trade commission (2009), tagliatelle was created by a talented court
chef, who was inspired by Lucrezia of Este’s hairdo on the occasion of her
marriage to Annibale II Bentivoglio in 1487. The recipe was called tagliolini
di pasta esugo, alla maniera di zafiran (meaning tagliolini of pasta and sauce
in the manner of Zafiran) and tagliatelle has since then become a more common
food. ‘Talia’ is a common staple consumed by a large section of the rural poor
in northern Nigeria. It can be prepared with other ingredients like tomatoes,
oil, and meat/fish, in the form of ‘Jollof’ or white cooked with groundnut oil
and spices. The later is the most commonly served due to economic reasons. Apart from being prepared and eaten in the
homes, ‘talia’ is also hawked around schools and market places as street or
fast foods. Recent advances in the manufacturing and processing of pasta
(noodles) did not have much effect on the consumption rate of ‘talia’ among the
Northern natives, probably because ‘talia’ is generally affordable (Anon,
2012c). ‘Talia’ being a cereal based product, has high carbohydrate content
(65%) and low protein content (9%) (USDA, 1974).
According to
Giese (1992), the nutritional content of pasta is widely based on the
ingredients used in its preparation and added sauces. Limiting nutrients in
pasta can be augmented by adding foods rich in such nutrients to the base
ingredients (wheat semolina) otherwise known as food to food fortification. Wu et
al. (2001) reported increase in protein content of spaghetti fortified with
corn gluten meal. There was an increase in protein content of macaroni
(12.1%-14.2%) when substituted with cellulose-protein complexes (Oifat et al.,
1993). Stefania et al. (2010) recorded increase in protein content of
semolina spaghetti with legume flour. Most staple foods of the Northern rural
poor are cereal based. These include ‘talia’
‘tuwo’ ‘masa’, ‘sinasir’, ndaleyi’, ‘madidi’, ‘capa’among others. Talia a cereal based food is limiting in protein and
dietary fibre. To improve the protein and dietary fibre contents of talia
therefore, there is need to incorporate foods rich in these nutrients into
talia. Okara, a by-product of the soymilk industries, but rich in protein (24%)
according to Rinaldi et al.(2000),
Glutamic acid (0.57g), Aspartic acid
(0.36g) and Lysine (0.212g) as recorded by Anon (2015) and Detarium
microcarpum an indigenous legume and a good source of soluble dietary fibre (50g per 100g dry
matter)(Ene-Obong and Carnovoule,1982), can be added to the base ingredients
to produce enriched ‘talia’ thus
addressing these nutrients’ deficiencies.
Composite flour
technologies initially refer to the process of mixing wheat flour with other
cereals and legume flours for making bread and biscuit. However, the term can
also be used in regard to mixing of non-wheat flours, roots and tubers, legumes
or other raw materials (Dendy, 1992). Blending wheat flour with locally
available cereal and root crops would be desirable to encourage the
agricultural sector and reduce wheat importation in many developing countries.
In Africa, there has been an ever-increasing demand for wheat products such as
bread and pasta. Africa is not a major wheat-growing region, but produces large
quantities of other cereals such as sorghum and millets. It has been reported
that replacing wheat with 20% or 30% non wheat flour for bakery products would
result in an annual estimated savings in foreign currency of US $320 million
and US $480 million respectively (FAO, 1982). In addition, nutritional
enhancement is another goal that is frequently addressed in the development of
flour blends.
Thus, composite
flour technology holds excellent promise for developing countries. Although,
actual consumer trials have been rare, products made with composite flour have
been well accepted in Nigeria, Kenya, Colombia, Senegal, Sri Lanka and Sudan
(Dendy, 1992). Sorghum is one of the
lesser used cereal in Nigeria. Sorghum is gluten free and the starch contains
100% amylopectin. These make sorghum a good substitute for wheat flour (Miche
et al., 1977). Therefore, this work seeks to determine the optimal level of
wheat substitution with sorghum, okara, and Detarium
microcarpum flours in formulating acceptable ‘talia’ pasta.
1.2 Statement of
the Problem
Northern Nigeria
has the highest prevalence of malnutrition in the country. More than half a million children in Northern
Nigeria faced severe malnutrition in 2013(Anon, 2013). Malnutrition remains an
underlying factor in about one third of Nigerian child deaths and communities
in the northern parts are among the worst affected (Anon, 2011). ‘Talia’, which
is deficient in protein and dietary fibre, is majorly consumed by the rural
poor. These people cannot afford the high cost of animal protein and are consequently
vulnerable to malnutrition. There is therefore a need to increase the protein
content of ‘talia’ which is a staple for these rural communities using
affordable plant sources. It is also interesting to note that these rural
communities produce soymilk and discard the ‘Okara’ (‘Dutsan-soya’ in Hausa)or
use it as animal feed. Incorporating this protein rich waste into talia will
address this protein deficiency associated with Talia.
Secondly, the
high moisture content (80%) of ‘okara’, makes it difficult to handle and too
expensive to dry by traditional or conventional means. Many people therefore
dispose it on land (land fill). Discarding ‘okara’ as waste on land constitutes
an environmental problem (pollution), because ‘okara’ is highly susceptible to
putrefaction and produces bad odour (Rinaldi et al., 2000).
Incorporating ‘okara’ into ‘talia’ could help to eliminate a possible source of
pollution while at the same time adding economic value to this waste product.
High cholesterol
in foods has led to several health conditions such as coronary heart disease, cancer,
high blood pressure and obesity among other health conditions. Fibre in diet plays very significant roles as
certain physiological responses have been associated with the consumption of dietary
fibre. Such roles include increase in faecal bulk and lowering of plasma
cholesterol (Ene-Obong and Carnovoule, 1982). Pederson et al. (1980) observed that the
supplementation of the diets of diabetic patients or those with impaired
glucose tolerance with dietary fibre
resulted in an improvement in blood glucose profiles and reduction in urinary
glucose. Lack of dietary fibre is one of the problems of food products like
‘talia. Incorporating Detarium microcarpum, a good source of dietary
fibre into ‘talia’ could address dietary fibre deficiency in talia.
Nigeria is not a
wheat-growing region, but it produces large quantities of other cereals such as
sorghum and millets. Blending sorghum flour and wheat semolina for ‘talia’
production could encourage the agricultural sector, reduce wheat importation
and promote the use of indigenous crops within and outside the country.
1.3
Justification of Study
The high
prevalence of malnutrition among the rural communities in northern Nigeria is a
major concern. The idea of re-channeling the waste protein in ‘okara’ to the
food chain for human consumption could address malnutrition, reduce a possible
source of environmental pollution, add economic value to the waste product, and
create job opportunities leading to better socio-economic development in the
country.
Increasing
dietary fibre in diets can help increase faecal bulk and lower plasma
cholesterol (Ene-Obong and Carnovoule, 1982). Incorporating Detarium
microcarpum in talia could improve its dietary fibre content and hence
reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
1.4 General
Objective
The broad
objective of the study was to evaluate the quality of ‘Talia’ supplemented with
sorghum, okara and Detarium microcarpum.
1.5 Specific
Objectives
The specific
objectives of the study were:
- To produce wheat- sorghum flour blends and determine the proximate and functional properties,
- To incorporate okara and Detarium microcarpum into wheat / sorghum flour blends and determine physico-chemical properties,
- To produce talia with the flour blends,
- To determine the storage stability, chemical and microbiological qualities of talia.
EFFECT OF OKARA AND Detarium microcarpum INCORPORATION ON THE QUALITY OF ‘TALIA’ PRODUCED FROM WHEAT AND SORGHUM FLOUR BLENDS
