ABSTRACT
The study investigated the Effect of Cognitive Restructuring on Social Competence of Pupils with Social Withdrawal Behaviour. Three research questions and three null hypotheses were generated to guide the study. The design of the study was a quasi-experimental non-equivalent pretest-posttest research design involving one experimental and one control group. The sample consists of eighteen (18) socially withdrawn primary school class five pupils from two schools in Igbo-Etiti L.G.A in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State. Two instruments used for the study were an adapted Social Withdrawal Identification Scale (SWIS) and Social Competence Rating Scale (SCRS). These were validated by experts and used for data collection. Mean and standard deviations were used to answer the research questions, while analysis of covariance was used to test the null hypotheses. Major findings of the study reveal that exposing Socially Withdrawn pupils in the skills associated with cognitive restructuring has an enhanced effect on their Social Competence. Maleness and femaleness did not have any significant effect on the mean social competence scores of those exposed to cognitive restructuring and those that were not. The interaction effect of gender and treatment on social competence of pupils with Social Withdrawal behaviour was not significant. Based on these findings, conclusions were drawn and educational implications discussed. Major recommendations made were: to educate and expose both the pre-service and in-service teachers to the skills of cognitive restructuring that can enable them imbibe it to pupils especially the Socially Withdrawn for effective social interactions in the classroom. Teachers should encourage the Socially Withdrawn pupils to demonstrate adequate social relationships with their peers in and outside the school environment. More so, both male and female socially withdrawn pupils should be exposed to cognitive restructuring without any form of gender bias since they all benefit equally from such exposure.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Some individuals appear content to spend most of their hours and days removed from others due to lack of social interaction. Conversely, there are those individuals who, while in social company, avoid their confreres, or who actively choose lives of solitude to escape the initiation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. In the cases of the avoidance of social company, solitude could hardly be construed as socially adaptive. It is not the display of solitude per se that may pose a problem; rather the central issue is that social withdrawal may reflect underlying difficulties of a social, academic or emotional nature (Kenneth, 2009).
Social withdrawal is defined as an internal state in which the individual lacks a sense of belonging in social relationships leading to exclusion and inability to meet their social goals in the company of their peers (Chen 2006). According to Chen, this is more likely to have direct experience of peer neglect and rejection than their more sociable age-mates. Social withdrawal refers to the consistent (across situations and overtime) display of all forms of solitary behaviours when encountering familiar and/or unfamiliar peers (Rubin 1993). Social withdrawal is not a clinically defined behavioural, social, or emotional disorder in childhood. It is simply a form of social isolation. For the purpose of this study, Social withdrawal is defined as isolating oneself from the peer group.
In one’s life one needs to interact with others. The ability to interact with others and to be competent in doing so has been ranked as one of the most important skills one can have (Rubin and Asendorpf 1993). It is through one’s interactions with others that one’s experiences become richer, more significant, and through it one learns, engages, reflects and becomes socially competent through social interaction.
Social competence refers to the ability to manage and contribute to one’s social interactions. According to Rubin and Rose-krasnor (2001), Social competence is the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others over time and across situation. It refers to one’s ability to regulate his or her emotions and behaviours within social contexts in order to attain one’s social goals and attain development tasks (Hastings, 2006). For the purpose of this study, social competence refers to a person’s ability to get along with others.
Pupils who are accepted by their peers or display pro-social and responsible forms of behaviour at school tend to be high achievers, whereas socially rejected and aggressive pupils appear to be especially at risk of academic failure (Dishion, 1997; Feldhusen, Thurston, and Benning, 2000; Green, Forehand, Beck, and Vosk, 1999; Lambert, 2002). This is to say that lower levels of social acceptance in kindergarten are predictive of deficits in classroom social skills, work habits, and lower academic achievement (Parke, Harshman, Roberts, Flyr, O’Neil, Welsh, and Strand, 1998).
Considering the lamentation of teachers, parents and other care-givers on the increasing rate of anti-social behaviours such as active isolation, bullying, sexual abuse among children. These problem behaviours seem to be exhibited by the socially withdrawn ones and it is believed to affect ones’ social relationship. Research has shown that socially withdrawn pupils are susceptible not only to anti-social behaviours, but also perform poorly in the school. More so, children who have difficulty paying attention, following emotions perform less well in school despite the ability to master academic materials (McClelland, Morrison, & Holmes, 2000; Slaim & Madden, 2001).
According to the report presented by the former Minister of Education, Prof. Ruqayatu Ahmed Rufa’i, who spoke while declaring open the 2012 National Conference on Examinations in Abuja, decried the poor quality of outcome in the country’s education system especially on English and Mathematics. She added that while 30.9% of candidates obtained five credits and above in WAEC in 2011, only 8.06% had that in NECO (Vanguard Newspaper, 11 Dec. 2012). This she further noted emanates from inadequate interactions among pupils in the classroom, especially the fading away of group study in schools. Hence, poor social interactions lead to withdrawal behaviours which inhibit child’s ability to discuss certain issues with the peer groups especially as it concerns academics. This is because almost every child wants to outshine others in academic performance and other endeavours in life. That is why social withdrawal behaviour has been evidenced to affect the child even as he/she transits to higher level in educational activities and throughout one’s life (Katz and McClellan, 1997).
Over the past decades or so, the study of pupils’ solitary and/or withdrawn behaviour has been associated with such constructs as shyness, behavioural inhibition, isolation, rejection, social reticence, passivity and peer neglect (Rubin 2004). This problem is viewed as emanating from such internal factors as anxiety, negative self–esteem, self-perceived difficulties in social skills and social relationships (Rubin & Asendorpf, 1993).
Early childhood is a period when most people learn the social and coping skills that sustain them for the rest of their lives. A child whose fears leads to withdrawal from social interaction will, if untreated, tend to grow into an adult with severe anxiety and withdrawal issues, vocalization impairment, abnormal health condition and other forms of anti-social behaviours. Such deficiencies in social skills will then serve to reinforce social anxiety and to foster negative self appraisals and negative self-esteem (Nelson, 2005). However, some believe that social withdrawal in childhood depending upon the age at which it is observed, reflects lack of a social approach motive and a preference for object manipulation and construction over inter-personal exchange (Coplan, 2004). Also, there are those who believe that social withdrawal is linked to psychological maladaptation as it represents a behavioural expression of internalized thoughts and feelings of social anxiety or depression (Vasa and Pine, 2006). Whichever, unless children achieve minimal social competence by about the age of six years, they have high possibility of being at risk throughout life (Katz and McClellan, 1997).
Recently, studies have found that social withdrawal predicted depressive symptoms for those children who had insecure attachment relationships with their parents (Gullone, 2006). That is, those children whose parents were insensitive or inconsistently cared for during their early stage in life. Thus, the cognitive structures or schema developed in early relationship in the family according to Ngwoke (2005), serve as the prototype for the child’s later relationship in school, marriage, family life, government, religion and other institutions in the society. When examining the impact of a particular value or belief on oneself and others, pupils can clarify their values or beliefs. This may be achieved through cognitive restructuring therapy.
Cognitive restructuring is the process of learning to refute negative interpretations, or fundamental “faulty thinking” with the goal of replacing one’s irrational, counter–factual beliefs with more accurate and beneficial ones (Ellis, 1998). According to Eke and Obi (2012), cognitive restructuring is the process of replacing cognitive distortion (negative interpretation) with thoughts which are more logical, accurate and useful. For the purpose of this study, cognitive restructuring could be seen as a process of helping one to correct negative or faulty thinking and believe one has about specific issue(s). The cognitive restructuring theory holds that one’s own unrealistic beliefs are directly responsible for generating dysfunctional emotions and their resultant behaviour, like stress, depression, anxiety and social withdrawal, and that one can get rid of such emotions and their effects by dismantling the beliefs that give them life (Ellis, 1967). The indication is that when this therapeutic technique is well applied, these socially withdrawn pupils will realize the negative values, beliefs, attitude and practices or knowledge they have about socialization and work hard towards eliminating and replacing them with positive ones. Hence, the rationale in cognitive restructuring attempts to strengthen the client’s belief that “self-talk” can influence performance and in particular self- defeating thoughts or negative self-statements can cause emotional distress and interfere with performance, a process that then repeats again in a cycle (Ellis & Harper 1975; Ellis 1998).
Notwithstanding, Maduewesi (2005) opined that the growing problem in school performance and engagement that many children face seem to be defined by issues of historical privilege. The pattern of child-rearing and socialization practice obtainable in Nigeria seems to allow young boys more privileges than girls. They may both have to work, but for boys it is outside the home, expanding their horizons, for girls, it is inside the home, restricting their interactions and experience. This gender imbalance seems to hinder one’s achievement.
Gender refers to socially constructed roles and socially learned behaviours and expectations associated with males and females (Nwagbara 1998; & Okeke, 2000). Gender as a social construct has to do with behaving according to type- male or female; boy or girl. Gender role–identity therefore is an image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine (Berk, 1998). This image of oneself shapes ones’ cognition towards social relationships. Gender schema theory has it that both environmental pressures and children’s cognition work together to gender role identity. Gender role identity seems to influence ones aspiration, self-concept/worth, goal setting, and social competence. When one aspires to a height and is discouraged on gender bases, one’s aspiration is dwarfed. To that extent, gender role destroys confidence one has in one’s ability to socialize so as to achieve a greater height socially, academically and otherwise.
Several efforts were been made to curb the problem of social withdrawal which emanates from inadequate social relationship. This is believed, results to active isolation, bullying, sexual abuse and other forms of anti-social behaviours exhibited by pupils. This may linger even as pupils move higher in education. A number of studies document decline in pupils’ social competence as they move from primary schools to secondary schools. This is the stage when children socialize with peers and gender stereotype becomes more pronounced. Erikson (1963) refers to this stage as a ‘gang-age’, when the child’s interest in family activities begins to wane. His circle of friends begins to widen. Therefore, young children need a minimum level of social and emotional competence to function in a group and benefit from the learning environment of the school setting.
