ASSESSMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF FLOODING IN SOME COMMUNITIES IN ANAMBRA WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA, ANAMBRA STATE, NIGERIA.

Abstract
Flood is a predominant natural hazard in Nigeria. In the last 30 years, Nigerian cities have experienced great physical development in terms of building, construction and reconstruction of roads, offices, markets, and stores, manufacturing industries and others without any appreciable infrastructures such as drainages for roads and canals to support them. These have made floods to be a serious challenge that plague many community in Nigeria including some communities in Anambra West Local Government in Anambra State, Nigeria . Hence, this research assessed the socio-economic effects of flooding in some Communities in Anambra West Local Government Area in Anambra State, Nigeria, and the imperative steps to be taken by the government and its host communities to reduce the effects of flood menace for sustainable development. Using an error of 0.05 level, questionnaire survey were utilized in gathering data for the study. Data collected through questionnaires was coded and analyzed with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Simple percentage, frequency distribution tables, chi-square, principal component analysis, linear regression and ANOVA were employed in the analysis of data. The study revealed very high socio-economic effects of flooding and significant pattern in the communities study area. The seven (7) significant critical aspects includes animal production, crop production, fish production, food availability/affordability, employment, health/loss of human resources, infrastructure and household properties. The study also found out that, there is significant relationship between flood incidence (frequency) and socio-economic effects in the communities studied area which implies that, an increase in the incidence (frequency) of flooding has an increasing socio-economic effects on the communities. It further revealed that a significant difference exists in the socio-economic effects of flooding across the communities in the study area. Finally, the study concluded by making recommendations.
Keywords: Flood menace, Community, Sustainable development, Socio-economic activities Floodplains, Drainage system, Environment.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Approval Page – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — i
Declaration – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — ii
Dedication – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – iii
Acknowledgement – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — iv
Abstract: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – v
Table of Contents – — – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — vi
List of Figure – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – ix

List of Tables – – – – – — – – — – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – x

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1: Background of the Study — – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – – — – – 1
1.2: Statement of the Research problem – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 5
1.3: Aim and Objective – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – -6
1.3.1: Objectives – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –6
1.4: Research Question – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – – – – 7
1.5: Research Hypothesis – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 7
1.6: Significant of the Study – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 8
1.7: Scope of the Study – – – – – — – – – – — – – – – – – – – – — — – – – – – – – 8

CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.0.1: The concept of Sustainable Development – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 10
2.0.2: Integrated Flood Management in the Study Area – – – – – – – – – – – – -12
CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW
3.0.1: Introduction – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 14
3.0.2: The Causes of Flooding – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – -14
3.0.3: The Causes and Effects of Flooding on Socio-Economic Activities -15
3.0.4: Climate change Impact of Flooding – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 32
3.0.5: Human Impact of Flooding – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – 35
3.0.6: Literature Gap and Research Prospect – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 35
CHAPTER FOUR: THE STUDY AREA
4.0: The Study Area – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 37
4.0.1: Location and Geographical Features of Anambra West LGA – – — 39
4.0.2: Historical background – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 39
4.0.3: Occupation – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – — – – – – – – – – – — – – — – -40
4.0.3: Climate – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – — – –40
4.0.4 Vegetation and Soil – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – -41
CHAPTER FIVE: METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES
5.0.1: Types of data – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 42
Sources of Data – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – — – – – 42
5.0.1.1: Secondary Sources – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – — – 42
5.0.1.2: Primary Sources – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 42
5.0.2.1: Sample Size (Population) – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – 43
5.0.2.2: Sample Size (household)- – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – – — – — – – – – 45
5.0.3: Sample Technique – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – -45
5.0.4: Validity of Instrument – – – – —— – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – — -47
5.0.5: Reliability of Instrument:—- — – – – – – – – —- – – – — – – – – – – — –47
5.0.6: Description of Statistical tool that will be used in the Analysis – – – 48
CHAPTER SIX: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS
6.0.1: Data Presentation and Analysis – – – — – – 52
6.0.2: Hypothesis Testing – – – – – – – – 65
6.0.3: Findings and Summary – – – – – – – 78
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
7.0.2: Recommendation – – – – – – – 82
7.0.1: Conclusion – – – – – – – – – 83
RERENCES: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – — – – – – – – — – – – 84
APPENDIX: – – – – – – — – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 92

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.0.1: Map of Nigeria showing Anambra State and the study area, Anambra West Local Government: – – – – – – – – – – – – – — – – – – – – – -38
Figure 6.0.1: Incidence of Flooding in the Communities Study Area: – – – – -58
Figure 6.0.2: Causes of Flooding in the Communities Study Area: – – – – – – -59

LIST OF TABLES
Table 5.0.1: Showing questionnaires distribution in the study areas: – – – – 46
Table 6.0.2: Socioeconomic activities of the respondents – – – — – – – – – – – – 55
Table 6.0.3: The socioeconomic effects of flooding in the communities
study area: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 60
Table 6.0.4: Coping strategies for resilience adaptation to flood incidence in
the study area: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 63
Table 6.0.4: Significance pattern of socioeconomic effects of flooding in
the study area: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 65
Table 6.0.5: Difference in the socioeconomic effects of flooding
across the communities studied: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 73
Table 6.0.6: Relationship between flood incidence (frequency) and
socioeconomic effects in the community: – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 74
Table 6.0.7: Difference in the socio-economic effects of flooding
across the communities studied – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – -76
Table 6.0.8: Duncan multiple comparism – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 77

CHAPTER ONE
1.0: INTRODUCTION
1.1: Background of the Study
Flood is a predominant natural and human induced hazards in Nigeria. Flood according to Aderogba (2012b) is a situation that result when a high rate of rainfall or precipitation, where the rates of absorption is low that causes bank of rivers or seas flowing over its usual limits. He classified flooding into two types in Nigeria: (1). High Frequency Flood which is called the annual flooding in Nigeria and are very rapid or short-term cause of flooding along the coastal areas especially in Lagos, Delta, Rivers, Bayelsa, Cross-rivers and Anambra west local government area. (2). Low Frequency Flood, these are those ones that normally occur in other various parts of Nigeria apart from the coastal flood areas and are slow-long term duration that occurs in Adamawa, Gombe, Jigawa amongst others. In contemporary times, flood has become a common hazard not only in the low-lying coastal environment like Lagos, Rivers, Delta States and etc but also in the hinterland places like Ekiti, Oyo, Osun, Kwara, Niger, Kogi, Benue, Taraba, Adamawa, Gombe, Imo, Enugu, and Anambra state. Some of these places often experience flood during heavy rainfall events.
According to Resonzweig (2009), flood can be defined as an unusual accumulation of water above the ground, which is caused by high tides, heavy rainfall, or rapid run-off from paved surface. Flood is mainly an environmental hazard of meteorological phenomenon but very often, it could be induced by human’s improper utilization or abuse of the physical environment.
Floods result when a stream runs out of its confines and submerges the surrounding environment (Stephen, 2011). Similarly, Kates (1985) defines floods as an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land. European Union (1985) sees flooding as a temporal covering of land by water, not covered by water before the incidence. Although flood may be temporal as suggested by the European Union (1985), its effects may not be temporal when such occurrence claims several lives and properties. Flood not only affects the victims but also has great effects on the national economy where poverty level tends to rise due to the incidence.
Therefore, the vision of Nigeria to be among the top twenty economy in the world by the year 2020 may be a mirage, if lives and property are not safe from the frequent occurrence of flooding in the country as floods is one of the major factors that have been preventing Africa’s population from escaping poverty level (Action Aid, 2006).
Halley (2001) identifies the major causes of flooding in Africa to be inadequacy of drainage. On the contrary, the major causes of flooding in Nigeria have been identified to be excessive rainfall (Taiwo, 2008; Akanin and Bilesanmi, 2011; Aderogba, 2012). Meanwhile, flood usually occurs when there is a continuous downpour of rain for a long period of time and the resultant excess water has the capacity beyond what the available drainage can easily convey due to its inadequacy or blockage of drainage basin. There are three schools of thought about the preponderance of floods all over the globe especially in the tropics. The first school of thought is that, there is global warming and climate change that is directly or indirectly increasing the amount of rain and ice melting that is increasing the amount of runoff. In this case, the only source of water that results in great floods in West Africa and indeed, Communities in Anambra West Local Government area will be rain water. The second school of thought is that, there have been a lot of abuses heaped on the physical environment by man; and that the environment is now responding to these abuses heaped on it. These abuses includes but not limited to poor planning of the physical environment, poor wastes management, inadequate drainages for the built up areas and others. The third school of thought has it that, it is the combination of global warming, climate change and the abuses of the environment by man that are the causes of prolonged and torrential rains and the resultants runoff that has lead to the devastating effects of flooding in America, Europe, Africa – including Nigeria; and Communities in Anambra West Local Government Area. However, the facts behind the three schools of thought are yet to be thoroughly researched and confirmed (Dow and Dowing, 2006).
In the last 30 years, Nigerian cities have experienced great physical development in terms of building, construction and reconstruction of roads, offices, markets and stores, manufacturing industries and others without any appreciable infrastructures such as drainages for roads and canals to support them (Aderogba, 2012), and these have made floods to be a call for concern in the country. Floods experienced in time past just like the havoc caused by the flood incidence of Ogunpa river in Ibadan, Nigeria in 1980 are still a cause of sorrow for many victims where several lives were lost and properties worth millions of Naira went into air, people who were bourgeois became proletariat in a twinkling of an eye. So, flood in Nigeria has done more harm without any notice of benefit. Some report also have it that over one million Nigerians may die due to the effects of floods before 2015 if no precautionary measures are not put in place.
From the above therefore, there is an urgent need to assess the socioeconomic effects of flooding in Communities, Anambra West Local Government Area and the imperative steps to be taken by the government and its host communities to reduce the effects of this flooding and the necessary mitigation measures for sustainable development of the communities affected as government and her agencies have continued to work towards providing relief materials to floods victims rather than taking proactive measures against flood occurrences.