CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
Most of the intellectual energy rallying at the back of the issues on work-life balance have their origin from America, mainly from the important study of Juliet Schor (1991) “The Overworked American” (White, et al., 2003). However, from time immemorial, it has been noted that, gathering information about work-life balance has been largely done in “Western Europe, the Anglo Saxon countries” (Chandra, 2012) and the “Eastern European countries” (Shaffer, Joplin & Hsu, 2011). This may be because, in some countries the idea of balancing work and life is a new phenomenon (Gambles et al.., 2006). Also, in time past, issues of work-life balance were not given priority because a person in employment was engaged on a full-time basis and that person was usually a man. The role of women was basically to discharge domestic work and care (Crompton & Lyonette, 2006).
In contemporary times, however, the attention on balancing work and life has been important, not only to Western countries but also to most developing countries (Hassan, 2010; Cooke & Jing, 2009; Verma et al., 2009 and Bhatnagar & Rajadhyaksha, 2001). Issues related to work-life balance are regularly gaining national and global attention due to the upward push in the employment of females and mothers in particular. The rising levels of employment among women globally is a result of the increasing aspirations of females resulting from higher educational attainment and also from the changing developments within the wider economic system (Crompton & Lyonette, 2006).
Work-life balance has gained the attention of many scholars because it is part of what makes up the life of an individual and pressure from work and other aspects of life have varying effects on the wellbeing of the individual because these various aspects of the individual all compete for the same time available on a daily basis (Clark, 2000; Frone, 2000). As a result of these competing effects of work and life, companies are increasingly considering the idea of balancing work and life as a key tool to enhancing sustainable human resources, which is
important in attracting and retaining talents (Parakandi & Behery, 2016). Incorporating policies to enable employees bring a balance between work and other aspects of life is essential to maximizing worker output and businesses are beginning to understand this. The concept has also gained significant attention in research and academia particularly in the fields of sociology (Allan, Loudoun & Peetz, 2007), psychology (Greenhaus, 2008; Frone, 2000) and gender studies (Sullivan & Smithson, 2007; Hill, 2005; Sullivan & Lewis, 2001).
The emergence of the industrial revolution clearly brought a distinction between paid work and family life which caused paid work to be linked to men while women were defined with housework because of some stereotypical attributes associated with both men and women (Gambles et al., 2006). This development restricted women to the confines of homes to discharge housework and men were seen as breadwinners who engaged in paid work. However, according to Crompton and Lyonette (2006), “from the 1960s onwards, the ‘second-wave’ of feminism sought to achieve equality for females in the sphere of employment, and in the USA, Europe, and the Antipodes, most of the formal barriers to ladies’ participation in employment had been removed by the 1970s” (p2).
Work-life balance as a concept was coined in 1986 to address the rising concerns of individuals and organizations on the effects of work on the quality of life and vice versa (Kanthi, 2013). This led to the formulation of certain concepts like “work-family conflict” and “family-work conflict” (Tung, 2009). The concepts “work-family facilitation” and “family-work facilitation” aided in the coining of the concept of “work-life balance” which implied that, “a balanced life” is a component of the mutual relationship between family and work and that the positives from the family can positively affect work and vice versa (Aryee et al.., 2005).
No one definition has been accepted for work-life balance even though a number of definitions have been brought forth by different scholars. Most scholars are of the view that a balance between two unrelated activities is
impossible. These scholars perceive work and family roles to be competing and in conflict but the definition given by Kalliath & Brough;(2008: p.326) opposes this assertion as they expounded the concept as “the individual’s perception that work and non-work activities are compatible which promotes growth in accordance with an individual’s current life priorities”. The definition given by Tomazevic, Kozjek, and Stare (2014) also brings out the interrelatedness between paid work and housework. They assert that a combination of the two roles will not amount to conflicts as they emphasize the need for work-life balance in creating harmony between the two roles.
According to Clark, when satisfaction is derived from work and family roles such that role conflict is absent and well-being is enhanced, then, a good balance has been achieved (Clark, 2000). When there is a balance, effectively managing different duties at work, home, and in the community is allowed and support is also given to the physical, emotional, family, and community health (HRSDC, 2004). Many are of the view that bringing harmony between work and life is solely the concern of the individual which is a small and a self-indulgent problem in contemporary times. However, the challenges faced by both men and women in handling their double roles are now viewed as a global challenge (Gambles et al.., 2006). Discharging paid work duties and family roles can be very tedious and challenging which may have physical, emotional, and psychological effects on the individual. In the works of Seligman (2011); and Hill (2005), they observed that; the repercussions of work-life balance are depression and distress which leads to low output, low work quality, increased rate of absenteeism and staff turnover.
There is also evidence to support the view that when work and family duties are in conflict, the wellbeing and health of the individual and the organizational performance are affected (Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton, 2000; Frone, 2000; Kossek & Ozeki, 1998). Also, reports from most people in academia show that a balance between
the two roles positively affects the wellbeing of the individual and becomes a stepping stone for a healthy and effective society (Halpern, 2005). Since the balance between work and housework is important to the wellbeing of the individual, it has gained importance in decision making in Europe (Crompton & Lyonette, 2006).
Problem Statement
The challenge of balancing work and housework is faced by both men and women worldwide with women suffering the most. In time past, traditionally, women were to handle family and domestic responsibilities (Bruni et al, 2004) and in most societies; they had been limited to the home since that place is where their basic roles are found (Blaxall & Reagan 1976; Hauser & Featherman 1977). From time immemorial, “women everywhere are ascribed the traditional roles of home and family care and are expected to carry out these roles irrespective of their educational, occupational, or social status” (Adom et al., 2018). In so doing, they mostly undertake a lot of housework (Myrdal & Klein 1968, 4; Rogers 1980, 7), caring for the family and making materials and rendering help with little support from men (Greenstein, 1996). These tasks which are unending are time-consuming and take a considerable amount of women’s time and resources.
According to the GSS (2009), the average time spent per day by women on unpaid housework was more than men. While women spent (2 hours and 35 minutes) men spent just (40 minutes) on unpaid housework per day. Almost one-third of women (29%) compared to one-fifth of men (19%), were participating in work for households and providing services for income. It was also realized that; on a daily basis, women spent an average of 3 hours and 29 minutes, which exceeds thrice the average time men spent (69 minutes) on child care. Women were seen to be helpers in meeting the family and nation’s social and economic needs as they discharge their traditional role.
The promotion of women’s involvement in the labor market has become a reality in Europe to the extent that, governments are seeking to encourage the employment of women who have young children (Crompton &
Lyonette, 2006). Recently, the proportion of women and males in the workforce of India is experiencing a change even though at a smaller pace in the rural areas but with an increased acceleration in the urban parts (Gambles et al.., 2006). It is now obvious that there is a change in the trend of women staying at home and discharging housework in more countries since women’s labor force participation has increased (O’Brien, 1984). In Ghana, according to the 2015 labor force report, a total of 9,270,939 (67.6%) persons are employed with women constituting 4,986,605 (64.7%) of the number GSS (2015).
Women in Ghana have penetrated the traditional male occupations like being managers, legislators and professionals. As of 2014, the total number of the population who were legislators or managers and professionals was 1.4% and 4.9% respectively with women occupying 1.1% and 3.4% respectively. The need to supplement the income of spouses coupled with higher educational levels have given women more job prospects resulting in a move away from home mothers to professional women. This has triggered a rise in the number of women in formal employment and caused many families to become dual earners (Kumari & Devi, 2015). Esping-Andersen (1999) and Esping-Andersen et al. (2002) also stressed the importance of women’s duty in providing the economic needs of their family because their earnings aid in the reduction of poverty and enhances the welfare of their family.
Despite taking up formal paid work, Franks et al. (2006) observed that women and men continue to discharge their culturally and socially approved roles of nurturing the children and breadwinning respectively and this becomes burdensome for women as they develop their career holding on to these stereotypical beliefs and roles. Gambles et al (2006) also noted that most men still do not help out with caring and unpaid housework and this has repercussions on the experiences and family life of both men and women. The challenge is really felt when they are managing their domestic and their paid work duties within a time frame (Cha, 2013; Franks et al., 2006). In combining paid work duties and family roles, individuals and families go through struggles and face a number of pressures and tensions (Crompton & Lyonette, 2016). These pressures are from both roles which are competing
for her labor and time. These women are also criticized for abandoning their children and families and not committed and efficient in their work.
The economic situation at hand also compels many professional women to endeavor to manage the two roles instead of focusing on just one even in the face of tension and pressure (Mehta 1970; Fogarty et al. 1971, 230; Srivastava 1978; Ramu 1989). Some scholars have realized that balancing work and family is part of the problems of our time (Halpern, 2005). According to Keene & Quadagno (2004), 60% of adults who are working complain of the challenge in trying to obtain a balance between work and the family. This may be attributed to the continuous increase in the workloads which are demanding coupled with long hours of work.
With an increment in the number of working hours among women than men, Schor opined that dual-earner spouses have a greater possibility of experiencing a ‘time squeeze’ (Schor 1991, p.17). Hilbrecht et al (2008) stated that, the double roles of being a mother and being in paid work, lower the probability of having leisure as time and resources which could have been channeled to an equally important venture is consumed by paid work and this is evident in the findings from the GSS’s Ghana Time Use Survey of 2009.
The findings from the survey revealed that men have time to participate more on recreation, cultural and sporting activities. With regards to cultural activities, hobbies,and other past games, it was realized that 6%, 14% and 20% of men and 2%, 5% and 5% o of women participated in these activities respectively (GSS, 2009). The demands of child care and housework can be viewed as an obstruction or hindrance to the career advancement of some women in taking up managerial roles since climbing higher implies extra load (Bardoel et al., 2000). The handling of double or even triple roles by women which involves children, their career, and aged parents creates conflicts between their roles (Hyman & Summers, 2004; Clancy & Tata, 2005; Wynarczyk & Renner, 2006; Walker & Webster, 2007). Consequently, only a few women generally occupy top management positions and those women encounter challenges even as they progress ‘‘more or less equally with their male counterparts up to
the level of unit management’’ (Doherty, 2004, p. 434). Most workplace policies do not favor women and women who claim ‘work-family’ or ‘work-life’ entitlements are looked down upon in the workplaces and mostly have their punishment in the form of terms of payment and workplace advancement (Gambles et al., 2006).
The challenges of balancing paid work and housework responsibilities have forced many women to venture into self-employment or entrepreneurship. Kirkwood and Tootell (2008); noted that a lot of people especially women have sought to be entrepreneurs because they view entrepreneurship as a way of arriving at a better balance between their work and family than that which is provided by paid work. However, Goby and Erogul (2011) and Modi et al (2010) have asserted that the inequalities that exist among gender makes entrepreneurship more challenging for women than men worldwide and the challenges are even greater for women in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) due to the unfavorable socioeconomic conditions existing in the region. This may explain why the businesses of women are perceived to be growing at a lower rate as compared to those of their male counterparts, despite the high rate of women’s participation in entrepreneurship worldwide (Carter, 2000; GEM, 2012a; Tanbunam, 2009). Despite going into entrepreneurship to balance their life, they still face certain challenges due to their position in society. These challenges range from cultural to financial. The culture of certain areas inhibits the progress of the businesses of women and due to that, women in these areas may be forced to work extra hours just to stay in business. This may stress the woman and cause her to have an imbalanced life. Satter et al (2016) explain that in Bangladesh, for instance, women engaged in economic activities are under greater pressure as compared to their male fellows because of the existence of gender bias in the areas of social rights, economic benefits, and wider social opportunities. This goes a long way to affect the work-life balance of these women. This confirms the assertion by Kirkwood and Tootell (2008) that entrepreneurship may not be a panacea for achieving work-family balance. The study, therefore, seeks to assess the challenges female entrepreneurs go through in balancing their work and family responsibilities.
