ABSTRACT
In Ghana the fertility rate of 4.2 children per woman is still greater than the global average of
2.53. In view of this, various policies and strategies have been adopted to make family planning programs and methods available so as to bring about a reduction in fertility. However this has not yielded the desired results since fertility has not observed much decline. This current study examines the relationship between age at first marriage and children ever born in Ghana by the use of the Ghana demographic and health survey 2014 dataset. The study sample included women who are in a marital union. The results showed an inverse relationship between age at first marriage and children ever born (r = -0.289, p<0.001). Data analysis using Pearson correlation, analysis of variance and ordinary least square regression was done. The multivariate analysis confirmed age at first marriage was significant and negatively linked to a woman’s number of children ever born (B= -0.079, P<0.001). Again some background characteristics such as education of the woman, ethnicity, religion, region of residence, wealth index and partner’s education were significantly related to children ever born. The study recommends that the current practice of giving females higher admission quotas is encouraged at all levels. Also ethnic and cultural practices that promote early marriage, particularly in rural communities should be abolished.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Female age at first marriage is an important determinant of fertility. The differences in female age at first marriage can lead to either a decline or an increase in fertility levels, which has an implication for population growth rate and the economic development of a country. Globally there has been a rise in the age at first marriage and currently women’s age at first marriage is above 25 years in most developed countries. The prevalence of delayed age at first marriage in several developed regions of the world was greatly influenced by the pattern of European marriage where there was delayed marriage and a high number of adults who did not marry at all (Howse, 2014; Jelnov, 2015).
In several areas around the world, young people are delaying marriage compared to their cohorts from earlier generations, due to modernization and globalization (Mensch, Singh, & Casterline, 2005; Mensch et al., 2005). In the developed countries, the transition to marrying at a later age began around the mid-1970s with a rise in the average age at first marriage from 18 to 22 years (Maubrigades, 2015). In sub-Saharan Africa, marriage is both early and universal, this is because it is a pro-natalist society (Caldwell & Caldwell, 2003). In Sub-Saharan Africa, the median age at first marriage stands at 21.1 which is the lowest compared to 22.6 and 26.4 for Asia and Latin America respectively. Therborn (2004) found a marginal rise in age at first marriage in most African countries. However early marriage still persists in some sub-Saharan African countries (Adebusoye, 2001; United Nations, 2013). Early age at marriage coupled with higher fertility has contributed to high population growth rates in countries such as Nigeria, Niger, Mali, Zambia,
Chad, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo and has also contributed to the overall growth of world populations (Lutz, 2007).
Globally the increase in the age at first marriage led to slight, moderate and high declines in the levels of fertility in different regions of the world. Further declines in fertility levels has been observed in regions of the world where the levels of fertility are low already with moderate declines in areas with high fertility levels (Lutz, 2007; Population Reference Bureau, 2016; United Nations, 2013). A United Nations (2013) projection states that by 2025 at least 20% of the working population in the developed worlds will be age 65 years and older which will lead to a high old age dependency. The declining fertility level is further expected to lead to low productivity (Prettner, Bloom, & Strulik, 2012).
In the 1990s the total fertility rate in Sub-Sahara Africa was 6.2 births per woman and this declined to 5.1 in 2010 and currently it stands at 4.8 children per woman (Bongaarts, Frank, & Lesthaeghe, 1984; United Nations, 2013). However the decline which started is currently stalling in some countries of the region which has had negative implications for the economies of the sub-Saharan African regions. High fertility rates therefore present a major difficulty to most developing countries including sub-Saharan African countries which needs to be addressed.
Ghana has experienced an increase in women age at first marriage, even though early marriage is still dominant in certain parts of the country. The Ghana Demographic and Health survey reports of 1988 and 2003 pointed out that, the age at first marriage in 1988 was 18 years but this increased to 19.6 years in 2003. Also there is evidence to show that at age 20 about 45% of women aged 25-49 got married for the first time and about 58% got married around age 22 years. However the median age at first marriage is 20.7 years. The report further states that there was a
reduction in the number of women who got married by age 15 years from 11% to 2% (GSS, GHS, & ICF, 2015).
The Ghana Demographic and Health survey report of 2008 indicated that the total fertility rate of the country started declining since 1988 from 6.4 to 4.0 in 2008 with a rise also in contraceptive use from 12.9% to 25.5% in 2003 (Bongaarts & Casterline, 2013). The total fertility rate has now reached 4.2 (GSS, GHS, & ICF, 2015). The current fertility rate implies that fertility is still high when compared to the global average of 2.53 children per woman (Garenne, 2008; Lesthaeghe, 2014; UN, 2014). Early marriage still prevails in certain parts of Ghana and this accounts for the high rate of population growth in the country, which is a major challenge facing the country (GSS, GHS, & ICF, 2009; Gideon, 2013; UNICEF, 2014).
Age at first marriage is a major indicator of fertility in Ghana and a critical area of study to understand the fertility situation in the country. There is the need to study the factors which leads to the differences in age at first marriage and its effect on fertility so as to make recommendations for policy interventions that will lead to fertility reduction in Ghana.
Statement of the Problem
The Ghana demographic and health survey report of 2014 indicates that the mean age at first marriage for women in Ghana is 20 years and this shows that a sizeable number of women marry early in the country. About 45 percent of women got married at age 20 where as 58 percent got marriage by age 22. It is worthy to note that the average age at first marriage which is 20 years is lower than the global average of 25 years. The report further indicates that the number of women who got married by age 15 years dropped from 11% to 2%, which implies that there was an
upward movement in the age at first marriage. However, generally there is early age at first marriage in Ghana. Early marriage is a factor that accounts for high fertility levels and a rise in the rate of population growth. This is because early marriage increases the reproductive life span of the woman making it possible for her to have lots of children. In a 2017 report by the United Nations, the current population of Ghana was estimated to be 28 million, a figure which shows an increase from the 2010 census figure of 24.2 million (GSS, 2012). The child dependency ratio is 60.8 %, which implies that the dependent part of the population is more than the working population. This led to an over burdening of the working population since it has to provide for the needs of these children leading to a lack of savings and investment (United Nations, 2013; Weeks, 2008).
Early marriage comes in different forms which include child marriage – marriage before age eighteen years and adolescent marriage. When women marry early it affects them physically, intellectually, emotionally and psychologically. Early marriage leads to early child bearing which presents a major health risk for both the mother and the child (UNICEF, 2001). The babies born to mothers who marry early and give birth early usually suffer from disorders of the nervous system which affects the normal intellectual development of the child. Also early marriage and child birth leads to a high incidence of infant mortality (Ikamari, 2005).
The other effects of early marriage include the infringements on the rights of the girl child, inability to have childhood and adolescent experiences, lack of personal freedom and an opportunity to develop one’s self to the fullest, girls dropping out from school, rising number of street children, unsafe abortions, very young laborers, increasing the incidence of children being forced to work under harsh conditions for little or no pay, a lack of adequate emotional and physical care for the child and a loss of self-esteem and limited future career opportunities for the
child. These young mothers also suffer great physiological and emotional damages and lower future family income leading to a cycle of poverty (UNFPA, 2012).
Early marriage affects not only the individual but also negatively affects entire households and has social, economic and environmental effects on society at large. The economic growth and development of a country is greatly affected. These uneducated girls are also not empowered to perform their roles as mothers and also to contribute meaningfully towards the development of society which further gives rise to gender inequalities. Again, the children born to these young mothers tend to face the same disadvantages experienced by their mothers leading to a cycle of poverty (UNICEF, 2001).
A UNICEF (2015) report stated that Ghana tops in child marriage rates in west Africa and this is characterized by children being forced into marriages before attaining age eighteen years. Furthermore this report states that despite the recent rise in the age at first marriage, early marriage still prevails in some parts of Ghana. These areas include Northern Ghana, Upper east and Central regions, which recorded a high rate of early marriages. There was an indication that one in every ten adolescent girls in these regions is already married (UNICEF, 2016). The report further revealed that in Ghana early marriage is more prevalent in areas where poverty levels are higher
Ghana’s population is made up of a high number of young adults and a relatively high fertility rate. The high percentage of adolescents and young adults in a population can lead to a further increase in the future population size and growth of a country (Casterline & Agyei-Mensah, 2011). In 1960 this adolescents and young adults population in Ghana increased to 1.1 million and it increased to 3.5 million in the year 2000 and in 2010 it shot up to 4.9 million and has been projected to reach 5.3 million in 2015 (GSS, 2013). This population which has the
propensity to grow, made up of the youth aged 15-24 years, is expected to persist into the 21st century. This youth bulge is associated with a number of problems such as a rise in armed robbery activities, drinking, smoking, drug abuse and an increase in sexually transmitted infections due to unprotected sex. Also, the increase in the youthful population puts pressure on the government to expand the educational, health and employment facilities in the country.
A decline in fertility is necessary if Ghana has to achieve demographic dividend. The demographic dividend is the accelerated economic growth that can happen as a population age structure changes. This happens as it passes through the demographic transition and begins to experience low birth and death rates instead of high birth and death rates. The country begins to experience the demographic dividend as the population of young adults gets fewer and less dependent on the working age population. Since a high number of dependent children negatively affects economic growth. A country is in the process of harnessing the demographic dividend if the young and dependent population gets smaller and measures are put in place to further reduce fertility (Baah Boateng, 2013; Weeks, 2012).
It has been clearly shown from literature that the early age at first marriage is the source of most population problems which affects not only the wellbeing of the individual involved but also affects the wellbeing of entire households and the society at large (UNICEF, 2016). It is therefore necessary to examine the factors that affect age at first marriage and its relationship with fertility.
